Optimal Order Quantities with Remanufacturing Across New Product Generations

We address the problem of determining the optimal retailer order quantities from a manufacturer who makes new products in conjunction with ordering remanufactured products from a remanufacturer using used and unsold products from the previous product generation. Specifically, we determine the optimal order quantity by the retailer for four systems of decision‐making: (a) the three firms make their decisions in a coordinated fashion, (b) the retailer acts independently while the manufacturer and remanufacturer coordinate their decisions, (c) the remanufacturer acts independently while the retailer and manufacturer coordinate their decisions, and (d) all three firms act independently. We model the four options described above as centralized or decentralized decision‐making systems with the manufacturer being the Stackelberg leader and provide insights into the optimal order quantities. Coordination mechanisms are then provided which enable the different players to achieve jointly the equivalent profits in a coordinated channel.     

考虑无缺陷退货下零售商转运的供应链回购契约研究

针对由单个供应商和同一连锁企业的两个零售商组成的供应链系统中无缺陷退货问题。在随机需求下,假设零售商努力水平与无缺陷退货率成反比,以及两个零售商之间可以相互进行库存转运,建立了期望收益决策模型。通过比较集中决策和分散决策下零售商订货量及各方期望利润,确定了零售商最优订货量和最优努力水平,并提出了改进的差异化回购契约,算例分析表明,改进的差异化回购契约能够达到供应链协调。     

考虑资金收益情况下的供应链回购契约

在制造商的资金收益率大于零售商资金收益率的情况下,以报童模型为基础,研究了资金收益对回购契约的影响.系统预期利润变为与批发价相关,利用拉格朗日方程求解了满足零售商参与约束、同时使系统和制造商预期利润取得最大值的契约参数.与不考虑资金收益情况下的供应链协调不同的是:订货批量大于相应批发价下不考虑零售商参与约束的最优订货批量;若零售商的保留利润一定,则回购价增大;回购价可以大于批发价,批发价可以小于制造商的边际生产成本.     

Hedging through index-based price contracts in commodity-based supply chains

This paper studies the optimal hedging strategy of risk-neutral firms in supply chain settings. We model a retailer procuring goods through index-based price contracts from two commodity processors. The processors’ input commodity prices are random and correlated. The retailer faces price-sensitive demand curves; therefore, it controls product demand through retail pricing in the final product market. We characterize the optimal contracting terms for the processors and show that they prefer to hedge part of their exposure to the commodity price risk. The optimal contract for processor comprises a processing margin independent of the commodity price volatility and a hedge ratio that is a function of the commodity price volatility and the products substitution factor. We uncover a new rationale for hedging in settings where downstream firms have pricing power; both processors and the retailer benefit from the retailer’s pricing power when their margins are linked to input prices; an index-based price contract is a means to link the processors’ and the retailer’s margins. We further investigate how different market parameters affect the optimal hedge ratios and extend our model to settings with random market sizes and asymmetric substitution for final products.     

Coordinating a Supply Chain When Facing Strategic Consumers

This article examines the impact of strategic consumers on the efficiency and coordination of a supply chain. We consider a supply chain consisting of a manufacturer and a newsvendor retailer selling a seasonal product to strategic consumers, who may choose to wait for clearance sales to maximize their intertemporal utility. Under a prenegotiated supply contract, the retailer chooses retail price and ordering quantity simultaneously. After that, the strategic consumers, who may be heterogeneous in their patience levels, make purchasing decisions. We find that strategic consumer behavior can hurt the supply chain efficiency due to severe double marginalization, and that a simple buyback contract can coordinate the supply chain. Nevertheless, we show that the supply chain does become more difficult to coordinate when strategic consumers are present: the set of buyback contractual terms that coordinate the chain shrinks as consumers are more willing to wait, and the chain profit cannot be arbitrarily allocated between the firms. Contrary to popular intuition, this result implies that the retailer may enjoy some benefit from consumers' strategic waiting. In addition, we find that the retailer's gain is the highest when impatient and patient consumers are comparably mixed in the population.      

核心企业回购担保下的保兑仓融资决策

作为一种供应链融资模式,保兑仓是解决中小企业融资难问题的重要方案,其借助核心企业的信用,提升了中小企业的信用状况,使得中小企业更容易获得银行的资金支持。然而,随着市场状况的恶化,很多中小企业倒闭,核心企业承担大额银行贷款的连带赔偿责任。本文研究由单一的零售商（中小企业）和制造商（核心企业）组成的供应链中,考虑零售商的破产概率,由银行控制货权,供应商对剩余产品进行一定比例的回购,零售商以银行提供的承兑汇票作为结算工具进行融资的情况下,分析了零售商的最优订货量、供应商的最优回购率和银行的最优贷款利率的决策。并通过算例得出回购率的提高能鼓励零售商订货,提高供应链的利润。但是,回购率对银行利润的变动很大程度上受零售商破产概率影响。较高的回购率刺激信用良好的零售商提高订货量会增加银行的利润,对信用较差的零售商来说,订货量的提高会使银行遭受损失的可能性提高,期望利润反而降低。所以,银行在提供保兑仓融资时,不仅要关注中小企业和核心企业的信贷偿还能力,还要加强贷款资金的监管,关注保兑仓融资的风险。     

不同混合回收模式和权力结构的逆向供应链决策分析

在制造商主导和销售商主导两种权力结构下,构建了制造商与销售商两者混合回收及制造商、销售商和第三方三者混合回收的四类逆向供应链模型,运用博弈理论求解,对四类逆向供应链进行比较发现：（1）回收竞争程度较高时,制造商的最优策略为制造商主导且两者混合回收;回收竞争程度较低时,制造商的最优策略为制造商主导且三者混合回收。（2）销售商的最优决策始终为参与制造商主导且制造商和销售商混合回收的逆向供应链,最差决策始终为销售商主导且三者混合回收的逆向供应链。（3）逆向供应链系统的最优决策为制造商主导两者混合回收或三者混合回收。（4）针对最佳权力结构和混合回收方式,制造商和逆向供应链系统的最优决策基本一致,均为制造商主导的逆向供应链;制造商、销售商和逆向供应链系统的最差策略均为销售商主导的逆向供应链。     

考虑企业社会责任承担的两阶段闭环供应链协调机制研究

针对由一个制造商和一个零售商组成的新产品和再造品差异定价的闭环供应链系统,将企业社会责任（CSR）纳入研究,分别构建了集中决策下供应链整体承担CSR、分散决策下分别由制造商与零售商单独承担CSR的两阶段闭环供应链模型,探讨了履行CSR对闭环供应链的影响和闭环供应链对CSR的最佳承担方式。在此基础上,建立了一个由数量折扣与CSR履行成本共担的组合契约模型。研究表明：当闭环供应链成员单独承担CSR时,制造商承担的效果与零售商相比,两者各有优势,没有出现某一种承担方式的效果明显优于另一种的情形;无论制造商还是零售商,单独承担CSR的最优决策与集中决策相比均有较大差距;随着新产品与再造品竞争程度的增加,闭环供应链各成员及整体利润也随之增加;如果制造商和零售商能够按照数量折扣与CSR履行成本共担的组合契约来共同履行CSR,闭环供应链系统能够达到协调的效果,实现更大的社会福利。     

供应商管理库存应对突发事件

本文研究短生命周期供应链,它由一个生产商和一个销售商组成,供应商替销售商管理库存。首先指出供应商管理库存同样存在激励冲突,出现双边际效应,即分权决策下供应商的存货量小于供应链利润最大的库存量。接下来,提出一个使供应链达到合作的合约--未售货物补偿合约,即,销售商要对没有售完的货物进行补偿。该合约具有参数简单,管理费用低,且能将供应链利润在供应商和销售商之间任意分配。然后研究当突发事件导致供应商的生产费用(包括采购费用,运输费用等)发生变化对供应链的影响。最后,提出一个能应对突发事件并使供应链达到合作的合约。利用数值例子说明合约的价值。     

VMI模式下考虑促销努力的销量回扣契约模型研究

本文在促销努力影响市场需求,单周期季节性产品销售环境下,分析了集中式供应链和供应商管理库存(VMI)供应链中的供应商供货量和零售商促销努力水平的决策问题。在无契约VMI供应链中引入滞销产品补贴的销量回扣契约,讨论了零售商参与合作的条件,结论表明该契约能够提高VMI供应链的绩效并改善其收益;而VMI供应链中的成员采用改进的销量回扣契约进行协调时,有可能实现集中式供应链的最优收益。最后,通过算例验证了引入滞销产品补贴的销量回扣契约能增加供应商供货量和零售商促销努力水平,大幅度地提升VMI供应链的总收益。     

两期不确定性需求下的供应链供需博弈

由一个供应商和一个零售商组成的系统,系统成员进行两期博彝,每期初,零售商订购,每期末,销售剩余产品剩余价值为零;零售商所面临的两期不确定性需求相关或不相关,当两期需求相关时,系统成员可以通过第一期销售情况更新第二期不确定性需求的分布.基于此模型,首先,探讨了供应商提供的回购合同的条件以及最优的回购合同参数.其次,通过数值模拟计算,得出零售商和供应链系统偏好于采用更新信息,增加收益,而供应商获取更多的更新信息使得自身收益减少.最后,若在不确定性需求相关下,供应商愿意提供回购合同,那么在不确定性需求不相关下,供应商也愿意提供回购合同,还指出,学习不确定性需求分布最佳的方式是通过回购合同,而不是批发价格合同.     

Implementing coordination contracts in a manufacturer Stackelberg dual-channel supply chain

We examine a manufacturer's pricing strategies in a dual-channel supply chain, in which the manufacturer is a Stackelberg leader and the retailer is a follower. We show the conditions under which the manufacturer and the retailer both prefer a dual-channel supply chain. We examine the coordination schemes for a dual-channel supply chain and find that a manufacturer's contract with a wholesale price and a price for the direct channel can coordinate the dual-channel supply channel, benefiting the retailer but not the manufacturer. We illustrate how such a contract with a complementary agreement, such as a two-part tariff or a profit-sharing agreement, can coordinate the dual-channel supply chain and enable both the manufacturer and the retailer to be a win-win.     

价格柔性合同下的原材料采购策略及风险分析

为了降低原材料价格波动给采购-供应双方企业带来的风险,供应链企业通常采用签订价格合同的方式来共同分担原材料价格波动的风险。本文通过设计价格柔性合同,利用Stackelberg主从博弈模型研究了由一个供应商和一个制造商组成的采购系统的最优采购策略及原材料价格波动风险的分担机制。研究表明,通过实施价格柔性合同可以降低供应双方的风险,且通过设置合理的价格柔性系数可以提高双方的收益。     

促进低碳产品需求的供应链减排成本分担模型

减排成本的存在,导致低碳产品的零售价格偏高,市场需求偏低,从而制约低碳产品的推广。以此为背景,针对单一制造商和单一零售商构成的双边垄断供应链,建立了基于减排成本分担契约的Stackelberg模型,分析比较了有、无减排成本分担契约两种情况下订货量、供应链各成员利润及供应链整体利润变化。研究发现,引入减排成本分担契约后,低碳产品最优订货量增加,零售价格降低,且在一定条件下制造商和零售商的利润得到帕累托改进,并推导出了制造商和零售商的参与约束和最优分担率。在此基础上,进一步分析了消费者对低碳产品的认知与零售商的产品订货量、供应链整体利润呈正相关关系,与制造商承担的减排成本分担率呈负相关关系。最后结合数值分析验证了成本分担契约的有效性。     

Revenue‐Sharing vs. Wholesale‐Price Contracts in Assembly Systems with Random Demand

Assembly and kitting operations, as well as jointly sold products, are rather basic yet intriguing A decentralized supply chains, where achieving coordination through appropriate incentives is very important, especially when demand is uncertain. We investigate two very distinct types of arrangements between an assembler/retailer and its suppliers. One scheme is a vendor‐managed inventory with revenue sharing, and the other a wholesale‐price driven contract. In the VMI case, each supplier faces strategic uncertainty as to the amounts of components, which need to be mated with its own, that other suppliers will deliver. We explore the resulting components' delivery quantities equilibrium in this decentralized supply chain and its implications for participants' and system's expected profits. We derive the revenue shares the assembler should select in order to maximize its own profits. We then explore a revenue‐plus‐surplus‐subsidy incentive scheme, where, in addition to a share of revenue, the assembler also provides a subsidy to component suppliers for their unsold components. We show that, by using this two‐parameter contract, the assembler can achieve channel coordination and increase the profits of all parties involved. We then explore a wholesale‐price‐driven scheme, both as a single lever and in combination with buybacks. The channel performance of a wholesale‐price‐only scheme is shown to degrade with the number of suppliers, which is not the case with a revenue‐share‐only contract.     

Coordinating contracts for a financially constrained supply chain

We consider a financially constrained supply chain in which a supplier (leader) sells products to a retailer (follower) who has no access to bank financing due to her low credit rating. However, the supplier can borrow from a bank and offer trade credit to the retailer to alleviate her financial constraint. Failure to pay off a bank loan or trade credit incurs a variable default cost. We analyze the centralized version of the supply chain to obtain new coordination requirements. We then examine whether revenue-sharing, buyback, and all-unit quantity discount contracts can coordinate our supply chain. We show that the all-unit quantity discount contract fails to coordinate. However, the revenue-sharing and buyback contracts can coordinate the supply chain, but only when the supply chain has a sufficient total working capital. Moreover, they cannot allocate profit flexibly unless the supplier has a large enough working capital. Finally, we design a generalized revenue-sharing contract that coordinates the supply chain with flexible profit allocation, and also show by numerical examples its superiority over the revenue-sharing and buyback contracts.     

新产品供应链协调

定价和促销是新产品推出阶段的两个重要决策。有些产品可能在价格还未确定之前就已经在市场上进行促销宣传,而有些产品在完全上市价格确定之后才进行宣传促销。本文考虑由一个生产商和一个销售商构成的供应链,产品的需求受到价格和促销努力的影响,生产商决定产品的价格,销售商进行促销。我们考虑下列三种决策顺序:先定价后促销,先促销后定价,同时定价和促销。我们证明,促销成本分摊和收益共享结合的契约在三种情形下都能协调该供应链。本文进一步还分析了三种决策顺序对生产商、销售商和供应链的影响。结果表明:同时定价和促销的情形对生产商、销售商以及供应链最不利;对于生产商和销售商来说,先决策时具有主动权,能获得更高的利润,但是当需求对价格比较敏感以及促销成本较高时,后决策反而能获得更多的利润。最后,通过数值实验研究了参数对最优决策和供应链利润的影响。     

Contracting in a Supply Chain with Stochastic Demand and Substitute Products

Retailers often stock competing products from multiple manufacturers. When the retailer stocks out of a particular item, customers who prefer the item are likely, with some probability, to switch to a substitute product from another manufacturer at the same store. In such an event, a “lost sale” for the manufacturer is not a “lost sale” for the retailer. This exacerbates differences in manufacturer's and retailer's stockout costs for the item. Such differences in stockout cost influence the optimal contract between the manufacturer and the retailer and also impose agency costs on the channel. Such contracts, in turn, determine equilibrium inventory levels and fill rates. We study these issues in a single‐period supply chain, consisting of a manufacturer and a retailer, under three different scenarios (when the two firms are integrated into a single entity, when the retailer makes stocking decisions, and when the manufacturer makes stocking decisions). We compare, and present a methodology for comparing, stocking quantities, manufacturer efforts, and supply chain profits across different scenarios. We find that VMI performs better when manufacturer effort is a substantial driver of consumer demand and when consumers are unlikely to substitute to another brand in case of a stockout. On the other hand, if non‐contractible manufacturer effort is unimportant, or when substitution is significant, VMI can exacerbate, rather than mitigate, channel inefficiencies, and can perform worse than traditional Retailer Managed Inventory.     

基于收益分享契约的VMI模型研究

本文讨论了一个季节性商品销售环境下的供应商管理库存(Vendor Managed Inventory,VMI)模型,建立了零售商与供应商之间的Stackelberg博弈模型,并求出了该博弈的均衡解.在此基础上,文章引入了剩余补贴策略对模型进行了优化,并找到了在协调供应链前提下实现供应链成员期望收益帕累托改进的最优集.用一个算例对结论进行了说明.     

供应商保鲜努力的生鲜农产品双渠道供应链协调决策研究

在互联网迅猛发展的时代,生鲜农产品双渠道营销模式是供应商的最佳选择,如何发挥双渠道优势,实现渠道共赢是目前研究的热点。以供应商主导的双渠道供应链为研究对象,考虑新鲜度衰减且扰动需求和供应商保鲜努力,对比分析集中和分散决策模型,论证构建协调模型的必要性。从渠道合作和利润最大化的角度出发,设计两部定价契约、批发价协调契约和由成本分担与补偿策略构成的混合协调契约,三种契约均能在一定范围内有效实现供应链协调,提高各成员的利润。最后,对比分析所设计协调契约以认识其本质,并通过数值分析验证其有效性。