Researching small firms and entrepreneurship: Past, present and future

This paper seeks to stimulate debate on the agendas, methodologies and methods used in the field of small business and entrepreneurship. The paper raises questions regarding the research agendas pursued and provides some pointers for the direction of future research. Integral to this is the argument that there is a need to reflect on the condition of small-business research and to raise the quality of research by employing robust research methods. This may involve questioning the role of small firms and entrepreneurship in society rather than merely advocating them and the policy measures taken when supporting and/or developing the small business sector. The dominance of specific viewpoints, the methodologies used in small business studies, and the consequences of these in relation to the development of a coherent scientific field of small business studies are also discussed. Examples of research activity are discussed to illustrate these themes. Overall, the paper argues that entrepreneurship and small business is a lucrative area for research. However, if the field of inquiry is to flourish, it needs to be approached from a more critical perspective, instead of merely accepting normative, or even strongly ideologically driven, standpoints now dominant in so many studies. This has implications for research agendas, methodologies and ultimately research methods training.     

A Case Study Comparing Static and Spatially Explicit Ecological Exposure Analysis Methods

Exposure to chemical contaminants must be estimated when performing ecological risk assessments. A previous article proposed a habitat area and quality conditioned population exposure estimator, E[HQ]P, and described an individual-based, random walk, Monte Carlo model (SE3M) to facilitate calculation of E[HQ]P. In this article, E[HQ]P was compared with exposure estimates from a baseline risk assessment that evaluated mink and great blue heron exposure to fluoride at a federal Superfund site. Calculation of E[HQ]P took into consideration a receptor's forage area, movement behavior, population size, and the areal extent and quality of suitable habitat. The baseline assessment used four methods that did (total and unit Tier 2) and did not (total and unit Tier 1) consider habitat area or quality; where "total" included all exposure units on site and "unit" only a given exposure unit. Total Tier 1 estimates were consistently higher than E[HQ]P (e.g., 169.1 mg/kg x d versus 21.6 mg/kg x d). Risk managers using total Tier 1 results for decision making would be unlikely to underestimate exposure; however, implementability of correspondingly lower remedial objectives could be challenging. Unit Tier 1 estimates were higher (e.g., 96.5 mg/kg x d versus 61.6 mg/kg x d) or lower (e.g., 3.5 mg/kg x d versus 51.1 mg/kg x d) than E[HQ]P depending on variations in landscape features. Total Tier 2 and E[HQ]P estimates were similar (e.g., 20.7 mg/kg x d versus 21.6 mg/kg x d) when an ecologically questionable average exposure was assumed. Unit Tier 2 estimates were consistently well below E[HQ]P (e.g., 17.8 mg/kg x d versus 61.6 mg/kg x d) when an average exposure was not assumed. Risk managers using unit Tier 1 or 2 results could be basing their decisions on potentially large underestimates of exposure. By forgoing average exposure assumptions, and explicitly addressing landscape heterogeneity, SE3M appears capable of yielding exposure estimates that are not as potentially misleading to risk managers as those produced with traditional averaging methods.     

Reproducibility and replicability crisis: How management compares to psychology and economics – A systematic review of literature

The past decade has been marked by concerns regarding the replicability and reproducibility of published research in the social sciences. Publicized failures to replicate landmark studies, along with high-profile cases of research fraud, have led scholars to reconsider the trustworthiness of both findings and institutionalized research practices. This paper considers two questions: (1) Relative to psychology and economics, what is the state of replication and reproduction research in management? (2) Are the disciplines equally advanced in the use of methods applied to study the replication problem? A systematic literature review identified 67 studies pertinent to these questions. The results indicate that the replication prevalence rate in management studies lies almost exactly between those of psychology and economics, while a high level of variation between management and other business-related disciplines can be noted. Further, similarly to psychology, but unlike economics, the surveys of published replications tend to report high replication success rates for management and other business-related disciplines. However, a comparison with recently obtained results in preregistered multi-study replications in psychology and economics suggests that these rates are almost certainly inflated. Method and data transparency are medium to low, often rendering attempts to reproduce or replicate studies impossible. Finally, the understanding of the replicability problem in management is held back by the underutilization of methods developed in other disciplines. The review also reveals that management, psychology, and economics exhibit strikingly different practices and approaches to replication, despite facing similar incentive structures. Disciplines in which replication and reproduction attempts are rare and which frequently involve authors of the original study in replication attempts lack strong deterrents against questionable research practices; thus, they are less likely to deliver replicable results.     

REPORTING OF MANAGEMENT FORECASTS: AN EIGENVECTOR MODEL FOR ELICITATION AND REVIEW OF FORECASTS

Increasingly, business firms will be disclosing management forecasts in financial reports to investors. Single estimates based on a consensus view (e.g., Delphi estimates) may be used. It seems logical, however, to consider methods that seek formally to derive internally consistent subjective views regarding the sensitivity of assumptions and interacting events on forecasts. The major purpose of this paper is to extend micro-level cross-impact analysis to a macro-level eigenvalue analysis approach that elicits views of the effects of assumptions and interaction events on entire scenarios. Both methods are illustrated and contrasted. They are complementary rather than alternative methods. In particular, each method offers some potential in the development of operational guidelines for elicitation and reporting of management forecasts. In addition, the eigenvalue analysis offers several key advantages that make it potentially useful in preparing entire scenario forecasts.     

Traditional Managerial Activities and Interscholastic Athletic Directors: Examining the Differences,Similarities, and Connections between Engagement,Gender, and Success of High School Sports Administrators

The business realities of operating an interscholastic athletic program suggest that there is a rise in the behavioral similarities among traditional business managers and sport managers. This study explored how interscholastic athletic directors allocated their time when engaged in managerial activities; determined if gender influenced behavior; and to what extent the level of engagement in those activities influenced success. The findings indicated most of their time was spent on traditional management activities and the least time engaged in networking. Gender differences did not exist, however, the time spent on traditional management activities was positively correlated to success.     

Business Legitimacy among Business Students in the United States, Great Britain, and South Africa

This study compares attitudes toward business legitimacy in three countries. Positive attitudes toward business legitimacy exist when there is a congruence between organizational activities and societal expectations. Businesses are concerned about the extent to which negative attitudes toward business legitimacy will lead to increased government regulation. The results suggest that business students in all three countries are similar in their attitudes toward business legitimacy; however, blacks have more negative attitudes toward business legitimacy than do whites. This study resulted in the validation of a scale that can be used to measure attitudes toward business legitimacy on a cross-cultural basis. Business legitimacy is a major concern in South Africa as the predominately white business community seeks to give the emerging black majority a stake in the existing economic system. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

HRD in 2020: a hop-on,hop-off city tour

This article reports on the outcome of a Future Search Conference in the UK to consider human resource development (HRD) in 2020 and beyond. We firstly consider themes from the past into the present. This includes the persistence of solutions in HRD that are systematic, predictable, how apprenticeships in the UK have had to accommodate government policies to ameliorate youth unemployment and the long-standing difficulty for HRD of failing to demonstrate a return on investment (ROI) on activities. We then present four scenarios based on key questions for the future relating to value of HRD and whether this will be a future for HRD. Reponses to the questions form scenario logics which we present against the theme of city tour. Each scenario is explained against the presented logic with positive, negative, ambiguous and uncertain implications for HRD. We suggest that each scenario carries a glimpse of what might be.     

Influential factors and performance of logistics outsourcing practices: an evidence of malaysian companies

Despite the growing trend of logistics outsourcing, there are very limited sources of literature on logistics outsourcing, especially in determining the relationship between factors influencing outsourcing and the extent of logistics outsourcing practices. In this study, we tap into the field of strategic management to help clarify the mechanisms underlying the links between factors influencing, logistics outsourcing practices and outsourcing performance. A model based on the resource based view illustrates the hypothetical connections among these variables. The data gathered from the survey were analysed using SmartPLS software. A response rate of 21 % out of the 486 firms selected was achieved and fixed as the empirical data for this study. The results of this study provide support that superior performance is correlated to the resources of the firm. The analysis shows that lack of human and physical asset capabilities, as well as transaction uncertainty influence the extent of different logistics outsourcing practices. The four logistics outsourcing practices under study were found to have a positive relationship with logistics outsourcing performance, particularly strategic focus. This study shows that although theoretically firms aim at cost reduction by employing a logistics outsourcing strategy but not proven in this study because the financial benefit was only positively contributed by one of the four logistics outsourcing practices under study. Besides that, the results from this study also support that most firms outsource their non-core activities of the logistics practices to respond to the transaction uncertainty that their business experiences.     

CONCEPTS,THEORY, AND TECHNIQUES

The beta distribution is becoming more widely used in business applications and in economic model-building. A simple way to estimate the parameters of the univariate distribution and the general multivariate distribution would be useful but there appears to be no simple way of accomplishing this task. For example, the method of maximum likelihood does not yield tractable results. The method of moments presented in this paper is a practical way to obtain parameter estimates for the beta distribution. Explicit estimators are derived for the univariate and bivariate case and estimators are then inferred for the n-variate case. Empirical tests suggest that the method of moments may be used to establish useful estimates for these parameters. Also, estimates obtained by the method of moments may be used to develop bounds on the parameters so that computational techniques can be utilized with other estimation methods possessing more desirable properties.     

Critical Business Ethics: From Corporate Self‐interest to the Glorification of the Sovereign Pater

Research in critical business ethics has demonstrated how economic self‐interest is the primary reason that businesses adopt nominally ethical practices. After reviewing this body of research, the authors propose that it can be further developed by questioning its conception of self‐interest, by exploring its non‐economic dimensions and by reconsidering the meaning of the ‘self’ that is said to have such interests. Drawing insights from feminist theory and political theology, the paper interrogates corporate business ethics as a public glorification of corporate power based on a patriarchal conception of the corporation. Genealogically rooted in early Christian ceremonial practices used to glorify God the Father, this is a glorification for the sake of glory rather than just for the sake of commercial ends. The authors further argue that corporate business ethics is rendered as the feminized servant of the sovereign corporate patriarch, always at hand to glorify the master. The meaning of corporate business ethics is hence one where the feminine is not absent, but rather is servile to a masculinity conceived in relation to domination, greatness and sovereignty. Collectively, this shows how the power wielded and desired by corporate business ethics far exceeds the pursuit of financial self‐interest; it is also related to modelling the corporation on a male God. The paper concludes by considering how research in critical business ethics can be extended through forms of inquiry that destabilize the ethical glorification of the corporation, and displace its masculinist privilege.     

Firm-level correlates of emergent green supply chain management practices in the Chinese context

Greening the supply chain is increasingly a concern for many business enterprises and a challenge for logistics management in the 21st century. Of particular concern is how to arouse organizational environmental awareness and put environmental activities into practice in the logistics activities of their supply chains. This paper investigates the correlation of two major factors, organizational learning and management support, with the extent of adoption of green supply chain management (GSCM) practices in Chinese manufacturing firms, where their inbound and outbound logistics activities are potential polluters to the environment. Organizational and operational learning was derived from the firm's experience with programs such as total quality management and environmental management systems. Management support included support for GSCM ideas and practices from top and middle-level management and cooperation across organizational functions. We find significant positive relationships between organizational learning mechanisms, organizational support and the adoption of GSCM practices, after controlling for a number of other influences including regulations, marketing, supplier, cost pressures, industry levels of the relevant practice and organizational size. Implications of our findings on logistics management are discussed.     

Performance Appraisal,Performance Management,and Firm-Level Performance: A Review,a Proposed Model,and New Directions for Future Research

Abstract

There has been a long history in management and industrial/organizational psychology of studying methods to improve performance at work. These efforts have traditionally been concerned with individual-level performance (with some attention paid to team performance as well); even when research began to more broadly consider the topic of performance management instead of just performance appraisal. However, the often unstated assumption was that, if an organization could effectively improve the performance of individual employees, this would accrue to improvements in firm-level performance as well. A review of the literature suggested that this link had never really been established in a direct way. Instead, we found considerable support for relating “bundles” of human resource (HR) practices to firm-level performance, and several models for how these practices could create the transformation from individual-level to firm-level performance. We drew upon several of these models, from somewhat diverse literatures, to propose a model whereby bundles of HR practices, when aligned with the strategic goals of the organization, can be used to create a climate for performance that could transform generic knowledges, skills, and abilities (KSAs) into specific KSAs needed to improve firm-level performance.     

Investigating the Level of End‐User Development and Involvement Among Time‐Based Competitors

As global markets and technology change, time‐based competitors create product development and manufacturing practices that reduce response time and enhance customization capabilities. These practices require an information‐rich internal environment that is capable of flexible resource deployment and direct and continuous feedback. To build this environment, time‐based competitors are developing end‐user capabilities and involving them in information systems (IS) activities. Data collected from 265 manufacturers were used to determine if firms with high levels of time‐based product development and time‐based manufacturing practices also have high levels of end‐user involvement in IS‐related activities, end‐user training effectiveness, and end‐user computing skills. The results of this study support that contention.     

Structural determinants of team performance: the mutual influences of learning culture,creativity, and knowledge

This study examined the effects of supportive learning culture, team creativity, and collaborative knowledge creating practices on team performance. A survey was used to collect data from a total of 228 knowledge workers from nine Korean organizations. Analyses included measuring item internal consistency, validating proposed constructs, and examining structural relationships using Structural Equation Modelling. The proposed research model was validated in terms of item internal consistency and a model-fit in the Korean business context. Supportive learning culture had a positive and direct influence on team creativity and on the teams' collaborative knowledge creation practices; however, it had an indirect influence on the team performance through the variables of team creativity and knowledge creation practices. In the conclusion, limitations, implications, and further research suggestions are discussed.     

Searching for innovation: Product,process, and business model innovations and search behavior in established firms

Prior research indicates that search practices are an important part of the innovation process. But where established firms search for different innovation types is not clear. Drawing on knowledge-based theory of innovation and using state-of-the-art statistical techniques (copula with Bayesian inference), we find that established firms predominantly rely on several external sources (broad external search) when introducing new business models, on internal and external sources with high intensity (deep search) when innovating processes, and on broad and deep external search when innovating products. We explain that broad external search is important for business model innovation (BMI) because increased exploration is needed when introducing new business models that rely on general rather than specialized technical or tacit business knowledge. We contribute to the innovation and business model literatures by nuancing the differences between innovation types (BMI, product, and process innovation) and the associated search behavior. It is important to consider these differences because they give us clues to understand how established firms can explore unfamiliar territories through BMI.     

Organizational persistence in the use of war gaming and scenario planning

Even though war gaming and scenario planning are widely used in business contexts, there is little evidence that either practice is associated with superior performance. Why, then, spend the costs? In this paper we address this puzzle and suggest why the extant empirical findings have so far proven limited. We consider the development of these practices and find that they have a substantially entangled and overlapping history, particularly at the RAND Corporation in the 1950s. Despite shared historical roots, the treatment of war gaming and scenario planning in the scholarly literature branched out into different streams. This separation is unfortunate because it obscures a better understanding of the premises under which these practices are effective. We propose an analysis of the overlaps and contrasts of war gaming and scenario planning that sets out clear boundary conditions for their use and efficacy. We find that each practice is tailored to provide strategic guidance in a context where the organization is facing different forms of uncertainty. This suggests they may be effective, and thus improve organizational performance, where the relevant uncertainties are operative. Such benefits would be apparent over longer time scales, and only if the relevant boundary conditions are met. However, to the best of our knowledge, no longitudinal empirical test of either war gaming or scenario planning is available. We therefore conclude that more research is needed to ascertain the true relationship between these popular practices and their performance outcomes.     

Emerging paradoxes in executive leadership: A theoretical interpretation of the tensions between corruption and virtuous values

The recent mini scandal surrounding questionable on-line postings of John Mackey, the founder and CEO of Whole Foods Market Inc., raises once again ethical challenges related to contemporary business leadership. Given his visible commitment to environmentally sound strategies and other responsible business practices, Mackey’s actions epitomize the irony and paradox that can surround executive leadership ethics. While this essay acknowledges the potential role of stricter legal constraints, punishments for offenders, decentralized governance systems, and rationalized structures that help prohibit power abuse, it views such rationalistic considerations alone to be inadequate. Rather, the authors suggest that the promotion of authentic virtuousness is an often overlooked yet indispensable part of any meaningful long term ethical leadership process.     

In Defense of a Utilitarian Business Ethic

In this article, I suggest and support a utilitarian approach to business ethics. Utilitarianism is already widely used as a business ethic approach, although it is not well developed in the literature. Utilitarianism provides a guiding framework of decision making rooted in social benefit which helps direct business toward more ethical behavior. It is the basis for much of our discussion regarding the failures of Enron, Worldcom, and even the subprime mess and Wall Street Meltdown. In short, the negative social consequences are constantly referred to as proof of the wrongness of these actions and events, and the positive social consequences of bailouts and other plans are used as ethical support for those plans to right the wrongs. I believe the main cause of the neglect of the utilitarian approach is because of misguided criticisms. Here, I defend utilitarianism as a basis for business ethics against many criticisms found in the business ethics literature, showing that a business ethics approach relying on John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism supports principles like justice, is not biased against the minority, and is more reasonable than other views such as a Kantian view when dealing with workers and making other decisions in business. I also explain utilitarian moral motivation and use satisficing theory to attempt to defend utilitarian business ethics from questions raised regarding utilitarian calculus.     

State estimation for nonlinear state-space transmission models of tuberculosis

Given the high prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) and the mortality rate associated with the disease, numerous models, such as the Gammaitoni and Nucci (GN) model, were developed to model the risk of transmission. These models typically rely on a quanta generation rate as a measurement of infectivity. Since the quanta generation rate cannot be measured directly, the unique contribution of this work is to develop state estimators to estimate the quanta generation rate from available measurements. To estimate the quanta generation rate, the GN model is adapted into an augmented single-room GN model and a simplified two-room GN model. Both models are shown to be observable, i.e., it is theoretically possible to estimate the quanta generation rate given available measurements. Kalman filters are used to estimate the quanta generation rate. First, a continuous-time extended Kalman filter is used for both adapted models using a simulation and measurement sampling rate of 60 s. Accurate quanta generate rate estimates are achieved in both cases. A more realistic scenario is also considered with a measurement sampling rate of one day. For these estimates, a hybrid extended Kalman filter (HEKF) is used. Accurate quanta generation rate estimates are achieved for the more realistic scenario. Future work could potentially use the HEKFs, the adapted models, and real-time measurements in a control system feedback loop to reduce the transmission of TB in confined spaces such as hospitals.     

De Beers,Anglo American and Optima Magazine

We consider in this article how the largest corporations in Apartheid South Africa used an in‐house magazine to manipulate their shareholders' perceptions of the current political scenario. We argue that in that era, business felt compelled to respond to the portrayal of events in South Africa presented by the international media. Furthermore, we examine the motivation of business for doing so and why that motivation does not exist in post‐apartheid South Africa.