中东反美主义:美国的对策及其评价

中东特别是阿拉伯地区的反美情绪一直比较强烈,美国的中东政策是其根源.但美国并没有充分认识到这一点,而是想当然地认为自己的政策是造福于人的"无私"政策,并在"9·11"之后把中东广泛存在的反美主义一律视为恐怖主义,认为中东的独裁政治是滋生反美主义的首要原因.于是美国便提出"大中东民主改造"战略.但民主政治本身并不能消除恐怖主义,至少从近期看,美国的这一政策效果还不甚理想.     

反美主义语境中的中东民主化进程

美国的"大中东民主改造"战略是基于反恐和国家安全的现实主义考虑,而阿拉伯—伊斯兰世界的反美主义则源自现代化与全球化负面影响和美国偏袒以色列的不公正中东政策。在反美主义语境下推进中东民主化进程,必然会遭到阻碍和扭曲。反美主义使中东缺失民主化进程的稳定环境,限制甚至阻止美国进一步推动民主的决心,成为阿拉伯世界威权政府对抗美国民主化压力的制衡手段,甚至还会制约美国"大中东民主改造"战略的路径选择。     

反美主义语境中的中东民主化进程

美国的"大中东民主改造"战略是基于反恐和国家安全的现实主义考虑,而阿拉伯-伊斯兰世界的反美主义则源自现代化与全球化负面影响和美国偏袒以色列的不公正中东政策.在反美主义语境下推进中东民主化进程,必然会遭到阻碍和扭曲.反美主义使中东缺失民主化进程的稳定环境,限制甚至阻止美国进一步推动民主的决心,成为阿拉伯世界威权政府对抗美国民主化压力的制衡手段,甚至还会制约美国"大中东民主改造"战略的路径选择.     

中东民主化的可能性和艰巨性

自从美国的“大中东”民主计划提出后,中东民主化已在阿拉伯—伊斯兰世界产生了较大的影响。本文试从理论角度分析中东民主化进程,认为它主要受四个因素制约,一是伊斯兰与民主既相容又不相容;二是美国的中东政策发生了变化,从“例外论”到“改造论”,从“文明冲突论”到“第三波”民主浪潮,但双重标准不会改变;三是民主和反恐不是相辅相成的;四是现代化与民主并非成正比。因此,中东民主化的实现将是个漫长而艰巨的过程。     

小布什中东政策受挫的根本原因及其影响

“9·11”事件以来,美国发动了阿富汗和伊拉克战争,并提出“大中东计划”,试图民主改造中东国家,但目前美国中东政策严重受挫,这主要有以下四点原因:一、美国奉行全球霸权主义;二、美国高估了自身实力;三、美国忽视了多极化发展趋势;四、美国低估了伊斯兰复兴运动的影响。小布什政府错误的中东政策削弱了美国的硬实力和软实力,并导致美国民众对政府的支持度一直下滑。     

美国在中东的“输出民主”战略

“输出民主”是美国持久性的战略,但却是服从、服务于美国的安全战略的,因而具有突出的工具性以及由之决定的可选择性,美在中东地区实施该战略的历史与现实正体现了上述特点。冷战期间,出于遏制苏联、获取石油、保卫以色列的目的,美国在中东“输出民主”时坚持“中东例外论”;后冷战时期,美国采取了较为积极的“输出民主”行动,但阿尔及利亚民主试验失败的事实,又迫使其重新踏上“中东例外论”的老路;“9·11”事件后,美国在中东采取极端的、冒进式的“输出民主”战略,结果导致中东地区更加动荡。     

小布什中东政策受挫的根本原因及其影响

"9·11"事件以来,美国发动了阿富汗和伊拉克战争,并提出"大中东计划",试图民主改造中东国家,但目前美国中东政策严重受挫,这主要有以下四点原因:一、美国奉行全球霸权主义;二、美国高估了自身实力;三、美国忽视了多极化发展趋势;四、美国低估了伊斯兰复兴运动的影响.小布什政府错误的中东政策削弱了美国的硬实力和软实力,并导致美国民众对政府的支持度一直下滑.     

2001年美国中东政策之转变

美国的中东政策一向与它的战略利益、经济利益紧密联系在一起。过去一年,巴以间的相互攻击和报复与反报复的暴力冲突几乎从未停止。美国作为“国际警察”,在巴以问题上,从相对“超脱”到“更积极”介入,无不是从其本国利益出发。911事件使美国意识到,解决巴以冲突进而实现中东和平,是和反恐战争相一致的。只有通过和平手段,公平合理地解决巴以冲突,真正实现中东和平,才能对恐怖主义做到釜底抽薪的作用。     

新时期中阿关系的发展和中国中东政策的演变

中国和阿拉伯国家拥有长期友好交往的历史。冷战期间,双方政治领域的合作硕果累累。近年来,双方在“中阿合作论坛”的框架下展开全方位互利合作,取得了重要成就。但中东地区形势动荡、美国推行“大中东”民主计划等因素对未来双边关系发展构成了挑战。中国的中东政策并非一成不变,而是不断调整的,这为中阿双边关系的健康发展注入了活力。     

中东伊斯兰国家转型中的“美国因素”

2011年以来,中东地区政局动荡,民众反美情绪日高,这充分暴露了美国中东战略的失误,主要体现在几个方面:美国的横行成为引发中东动荡的一个重要诱因;巴以争端依旧,令阿拉伯人十分不满;为了稳住中东,化被动为主动,以继续掌握中东事务的主导权,奥巴马提出了中东"新思维"。尽管新意不多,但体现了美国政府对中东政策的调整,并日渐清晰。尤其值得一提的是,美国正在打造埃及这个"民主过渡"样板,以促中东其他国家仿效。     

Politique et expertise scientifique. La régulation européenne des médicaments

A study of the EU system for regulating medicinal products is used to show the usefulness of distinguishing between policy-making and scientific expertise when analyzing political decision-making. This approach presupposes identifying the characteristics of scientific expertise. The experts responsible for assessing drugs have to combine knowledge and action. Questions are raised about how work is shared between decision-makers and experts. In the case of medicinal products, the work of experts has absorbed decision-making. Lest we waver between explanations in terms either of science or else of politics, it is necessary to substantively identify expertise’s political dimensions. Two conceptions — the “healthy man’s” and the “sick man’s” — of the purpose of assessing medicinal products stand out in debates; but political authorities pay no heed to them.     

The electronic face of government in the internet age: borrowing from Murray Edelman

The issue of legitimation by political elites has been a central concern of political scientists for many years. This article draws upon the work of Murray Edelman who was instrumental in analysing this relationship between rulers and ruled, the relatively powerful and relatively powerless, through an understanding of language, symbolism and the manipulation of information. It concludes with the contention that the Internet offers the prospect for governments to create new 'electronic faces', which act to support a symbolic architecture of power.     

WHAT IS THE MULTITUDE?

Nicholas Brown and Imre Szeman continue their conversation with Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri. (See ‘The Global Coliseum: On Empire’ in Cultural Studies, 16.2, (March 2002), p. 177–192). In this new interview they press the authors of Empire and Multitude on questions that have arisen both out of their own involvement with the theoretical issues generated by Empire and from new areas opened up by Multitude. Why is the multitude not a class? How can the unity of a political project be maintained in the multiplicity of the multitude? Is democracy still a project for the future? Can a political subject constitute itself outside the structure of sovereignty? In other words, what is the multitude?     

DEFINING MOMENTS: THE TENSION BETWEEN RICHNESS AND REACH

The defining moments of traditional spatially based higher education are made up of fixed and fluid experiences. These 'moments' are now creaking as funding per student falls and the romanticized ideal of an education detached from 'real' life falters under the weight of highly variable student experiences. Distance learning in all its guises has always been regarded as inferior by those embedded in the traditional system. However more and more students demand something different from costly campus-based education. It is time for a more open discussion about the tensions between richness and reach and the role that new facilities like the Internet could play in reaching more students without wallowing in the nostalgia that often accompanies such debates.     

A Stylistic Analysis of Hemingway’s A Clean,Well-Lighted Place

One important theme of Hemingway＇s A Clean, Well-Lighted Place is the nothingness of life itself, At the beginning of this short story, Hemingway presents a setting--the cafe, which is familiar to us, and then moves our attention to focus on the characters within that setting, The story is told through the dialogues between the two waiters and is in third-person narration, In the following paragraphs we will focus on stylistic characteristics of this short story,     

INFORMATION-CENTRED DESIGN: A methodology for designing virtual meeting DESIGN environments

Development of single-user computer applications has often been based on user-centred or task-centred design methodologies, with some success. These methodologies are also useful for guiding the development of multi-user CSCW applications whenever the basic characteristics of the users, or the type of tasks for which the system is being designed are identifiable. The effectiveness of these methodologies as a basis for the design of virtual meeting environments for supporting community-based activities, on the other hand, is rather limited. This is mainly due to the fact that for such systems it is not generally possible to identify the user or task requirements, as these vary considerably from one community to another, or even within the same community over a period of time. New methodologies need to be devised, or existing methodologies have to be modified, to direct the development of virtual environments for which the characteristics of the users or their activities are not known in advance. This paper introduces the concept of information-centred design. Information-centred design, though not fully devised yet, focuses on the identification of the type of information, as well as the way it is collected and utilized by the users of a virtual meeting environment. This pool of information, which plays an important role in facilitating interaction and communication between the members of a community, could be defined as their communal memory.     

Recruitment of foreign male and female fighters to Jihad: Morocco’s multifaceted counter-terror strategy

Field research on ‘young Moroccan Jihadists in Syria and Iraq from northern Morocco’ unexpectedly revealed the mundane factors behind their recruitment represented in the self-realization and the search for heroism, adventure and money, were the main reasons for the recruitment of young people in northern Morocco terrorist organizations, especially the Daesh. The religious factor is secondary. To combat terrorism and extremism which is spreading in the MENA region requires political will. Appropriate laws should be enacted as soon as possible and policies must be implemented to ensure border control, the closure of financing ports, propaganda platforms, anti-addiction, etc.     

L’adaptation des modèles de production dans les pays émergents L’exemple de l’industrie automobile en Argentine

How to test for the existence of a new model of production based on the firm lending an ear to customer demands and valuing the individual and collective intelligence of its work force? The facts for putting this model to the test of reality come from an analysis of two Argentinean automobile-makers, subsidiaries of Toyota and Volkswagen. Various aspects of their organization policy provide evidence of their capacity for making adaptations by “hybridizing” the parent firm’s model with the rationales inherent in the network of local actors (suppliers and labor unions, in particular). These firms are open systems with a narrow margin of maneuver. — Special issue: Latin America.     

Celebrating the 21st anniversary of empowerment evaluation with our critical friends

This special topic edition of E&PP presents the insights of luminaries in the field who have helped shape empowerment evaluation with their critiques, concerns, and congratulations. We celebrate their contributions to empowerment evaluation. This special topic edition of E&PP presents their comments about an evaluation approach that, according to president Stewart Donaldson, has “gone viral” across the globe (Donaldson, 2015).To set the stage for these critical friends’ comments, additional context for their discussion is provided. In addition, this special topic edition concludes with a brief comment on their thoughts.     

The Politics of Pain and the End of Empire

This article is a discussion of the role of feeling and emotion, and particularly the experience of pain, in contemporary global political events. In placing pain at the center of an analysis of a lived experience of global politics, the aim is to forge strategies to resist neoliberal imperialism and to create emotionally literate political communities. Drawing on the work of Elaine Scarry, Sara Ahmed and Frantz Fanon, the article situates the concept of emotions in a modern colonial landscape that is both racialized and gendered, complicated by neoliberalism as a subjectivity that contains the scope for emotions. As a case study, the article considers the emotions of viewing the deliberate infliction of pain through the circulation of the ‘Abu Ghraib photos’, particularly in the form of recent museum exhibitions in the USA.