子女性别与家庭储蓄--基于中国家庭金融调查数据(CHFS)的分析北大核心CSSCI

近年来,我国性别比持续偏高,给家庭经济决策带来一系列影响。文章从子女性别差异的视角出发,考察子女性别如何影响家庭储蓄及资产选择行为。基于2015中国家庭金融调查(CHFS)数据的实证分析发现,男孩家庭储蓄率显著高于女孩家庭。替换关键变量、采用倾向得分匹配法和分位数回归法等稳健性检验支持上述结论。异质性分析显示,子女性别对子女年龄处于16~25岁的家庭、东部地区家庭、城镇家庭及高收入家庭的储蓄率的影响更为显著。机制检验表明,子女性别对家庭储蓄率的影响主要通过“节俭效应”实现,男孩家庭倾向于减少享受型消费支出,同时有更强的动机购买多套住房。研究有助于深入理解子女性别的社会影响,并为中国家庭储蓄率差异提供了更丰富的微观经验证据。     

家庭因素对性别工资差异的影响——基于CFPS数据的实证分析

随着职业性别隔离现象不断减少、男女受教育水平和教育收益率的逐步收敛,人力资本、职业和行业分布已经无法解释我国性别工资差异不断扩大的趋势。从家庭出发,考察婚姻、家务劳动分工和子女这些典型的家庭特征因素对性别工资差异的影响,运用2016年CFPS数据,在解决内生性问题的条件下,研究结果表明:婚姻通过增加女性家务劳动时间和子女间接影响女性工资,家务劳动时间和母亲身份对女性工资率具有显著的惩罚效应,女性平均每周承担家务劳动17小时,这导致其周工资率减少34%,子女降低母亲8.5%的周工资率;相对于未婚女性,已婚女性每周多做7小时家务,这降低了她们14%的周工资率。男性则存在婚姻溢价效应。Oaxaca分解也显示,家庭特征,尤其是家务劳动时间,是性别歧视之外导致性别工资差距的主要原因。本文按收入阶层的异质性分析表明,家庭特征可能引起低收入阶层更大的性别工资差异。本文的分析还显示,家务劳动对男性和女性具有门槛效应,且阈值位于10.5小时左右。     

单亲母亲家庭经济现状研究

单亲母亲家庭是增长最快的生活贫困的人口群体,反映了"贫困女性化"的世界共同趋势。单亲母亲家庭贫困问题正在引起社会的普遍关注并成为研究的热点。利用天津市妇女联合会对天津市内六区非农业人口中单亲母亲的最新调查数据,用社会性别视角分析了单亲母亲的生活贫困化问题,揭示了单亲母亲家庭贫困的社会性别文化和经济根源,提出缓解和消除单亲母亲家庭贫困的社会救助对策。     

对三个影响人口增长因素的定量分析

家庭是组成社会的微观单位,社会人口变化过程是每个家庭人口变化过程综合作用的结果。从家庭角度看,影响生育过程不外是三个因素,即结婚年龄、生育间隔及生育子女个数。这三个因素对人口变化过程影响是否相同,差别有多大,哪个应是控制人口增长的主要因素,很需要进行一些定量分析。 人口统计学中,某年育龄妇女平均生育子女个数,一般用总和生育率(记为β)表示。平均生育子女个数在一定程度上反映两代人的替代水平。更确切些要用人口净再生产率(记为R),表示女婴与母亲两代人之间的替代水平。总和生育率与人口净再生产率有着线性关系,即:     

家庭子女数量和性别结构对老年人休闲生活影响的研究

中国老龄化进程与少子化伴行,家庭子女状况对老年人休闲生活有重要意义。使用2010年中国社会综合调查（ CGSS ）数据,分析是否有孩子、孩子数量、孩子性别对老年人休闲生活的影响。结果发现：孩子越多,老年人休闲生活的频率越低;儿子对老年人休闲生活以负向影响为主,且1个儿子的强度最大;女儿对老年人休闲生活以正向影响为主,且1个女儿的强度最大。重视家庭子女对老年人休闲生活的影响,对提高老年人休闲生活频率、推进健康老龄化意义重大。     

劳动力外流下农村家庭代际支持性别分工研究

利用西安交通大学人口与发展研究所2001年、2003年和2006年"安徽省老年人生活福利状况跟踪调查数据",采用随机效应的Logistic模型,从老年父母和成年子女两个角度研究农村老年人家庭代际支持性别分工机制的变化。结果发现,农村老年人家庭代际交换仍然符合合作群体模式,由于不同性别在家庭中的角色和性别分工不同,老年父亲从子女外出中直接获益更多,老年母亲更多地是获得补偿性支持;儿子仍然在家庭养老中承担主要责任,女儿得到老年父母帮助时提供的补偿性支持更多,劳动力外流促使儿子和女儿对老年父母代际支持的性别差异缩小,女儿在家庭养老中的地位和作用显著提高。     

子女离婚对老年人健康的影响研究--基于CLASS数据的实证分析

婚姻稳定性下降、人口老龄化加剧预示着越来越多的老年人会经历子女离婚,然而子女离婚是否以及如何影响老年父母健康尚缺乏研究。本文基于生命历程理论和社会性别理论,从老年健康的角度出发,强调来自家庭层面子女离婚的影响,并从家庭代际经济支持等方面分析子女离婚如何影响老年健康及其发生的机制,探索家庭内部影响因素间的作用与联系。本文利用2014年和2018年“中国老年社会追踪调查数据”(CLASS)分析子女离婚对老年父母健康状况的影响。研究发现对于当前我国老年人而言,子女离婚仍是少数,但子女离婚会对老年父母健康带来冲击,表现为有离婚子女的老年人更可能自评身体不健康、慢性病患病数量显著更多、精神健康水平更低;子女离婚对老年父母的健康负面影响具有持久性;相较于儿子离婚,女儿离婚的老年人更可能自觉身体不健康;子女离婚对父母健康的影响具有性别异质性,离婚更易影响女儿对父母的经济支持水平是一个重要原因。     

农村居民养老意愿的影响因素分析——基于武汉市江夏区的实证研究

农村居民养老意愿是影响在农村推行何种养老政策的重要因素。本文以抽样调查的数据为基础。利用回归模型中的无序多属性反应变量的Logit模型（MNL）对武汉市江夏区农村居民养老意愿的影响因素进行了分析。研究发现,性别、年龄等个人特征与家庭子女数、家庭规模、家庭年净收入等家庭特征对农村居民的养老意愿的影响显著,而文化程度和婚姻状况等个人特征虽然在样本中影响较大,但在总体中对养老模式选择并无显著影响。     

家庭因素对中国儿童健康的影响分析

利用中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)2009年度数据,运用OLS及分位数回归计量方法,对1291名18周岁以下儿童的健康状况(HAZ)进行理论分析与实证研究后发现,在剔除了生理遗传因素的影响后,家庭所在的地理位置、家庭长期福利水平、父亲受教育水平、父母的职业类别以及儿童的年龄都与儿童的健康有显著的相关关系。同时,孩子的性别及家庭中孩子的性别组成显著影响我国儿童的健康。具体而言,男孩的健康状况优于女孩,双子女的家庭规模最利于儿童的健康,且与家庭中只有同一性别的孩子相比,孩子性别比例更为均衡的家庭更利于儿童健康。     

影响农民参加社会养老保险的因素分析——以山东、安徽省六村农民为例

本研究利用１９９５年民政部专家组调查数据,运用定量分析的方法,对影响农民参加社会养老保险的微观因素进行了分析。罗吉斯蒂（Ｌｏｇｉｓｔｉｃ）多元回归分析结果显示,在所有被考虑的自变量相同的情况下,年龄、子女数、家庭规模和所在村属于的省份,在统计上对农民是否参加社会养老保险具有显著的解释性。性别、婚姻状况、儿子数、受教育水平、职业状况和收入类变量,如家庭人均年收入、家庭年人均收支净值、家庭现有存款、家庭去年新增存款等,没有通过双变量关联性（度）检验,对因变量不具解释力。５对显著相关、且关联度较高的自变量交互作用在Ｐ＝０．０５的显著水平下也没有进入模型,在统计上对因变量缺乏解释力     

The Influence of Acculturation on Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration for Mexican-Americans

This paper uses data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to test the hypotheses that (1) similar to other positive pre- and post-natal outcomes, Mexican immigrant mothers are more likely to breastfeed, and to breastfeed longer, than white or Mexican-American mothers; and (2) acculturation accounts for the ethnic/nativity differential in breastfeeding initiation and duration. The results support both hypotheses. Mexican immigrants to the U.S. are much more likely than whites to breastfeed, and to breastfeed longer. Mexican-American mothers, after controlling for background characteristics, have similar initiation and duration to whites. Using expanded acculturation measures developed for this paper, acculturation accounts for some of the difference between whites and Mexican immigrants in breastfeeding initiation, and much of the difference for breastfeeding duration. The results suggest that low levels of acculturation operate to protect Mexican immigrants from choosing to formula-feed, which gives their babies many health advantages, and may be associated with better health outcomes across the life course. The results also suggest that successive generations of Mexican immigrants may abandon breastfeeding, which is deleterious for their infants.     

The effects of early pacifier use on breastfeeding: A randomised controlled trial

BackgroundThe majority of observational studies have found associations between pacifier use and shorter breastfeeding duration. Results from four randomised controlled trials did not reveal any difference in breastfeeding outcomes. The relationship between early pacifier use and breastfeeding outcomes remains unclear.AimTo investigate whether a recommendation of early pacifier use affects the proportion of breastfeeding at six months compared to a recommendation to avoid pacifier use during the first two weeks.MethodsAn open, randomised controlled trial with parallel group design; 239 primiparous mothers and their term infants were randomly assigned to an intervention group or a control group. The primary outcome was the proportion of breastfeeding at six months. Secondary outcomes were the proportions of breastfeeding and breastfeeding problems at two and four months. To investigate factors which may influence breastfeeding, a multivariate logistic regressions analysis was performed.FindingsA total of 209 participants (87.5%) completed the study. There were no significant differences between the groups with respect to breastfeeding at six months. No negative association for breastfeeding between early versus late introduction of pacifier was found. Factors significantly associated with cessation of breastfeeding at six months were: use of nipple shield, intention to breastfeed, severe breastfeeding problems at two weeks, pacifier use at two months and lower educational level.ConclusionEarly versus late recommendation of pacifier introduction did not affect the proportion of breastfeeding at six months. However, the compliance to the randomised group was insufficient. No negative association was found in the observational analysis.     

Association between expressed breast milk feeding and breastfeeding duration in Hong Kong mothers

BackgroundExpressed breast milk feeding has increased substantially in the past two decades. Once used primarily for preterm infants, feeding expressed breast milk is now more common in mothers giving birth to healthy term infants. However, the effect of expressed breast milk feeding on breastfeeding duration is unclear.ObjectivesTo assess the association between breast milk expression practices and breastfeeding duration in women giving birth to healthy infants.MethodsFrom 2017 to 2018, we recruited 821 new mothers from two public hospitals in Hong Kong. Participants were followed up at 1.5, 3, and 6 months postpartum or until they stopped breastfeeding. The proportion, type, and mode of all milk feeding were assessed at each follow-up.ResultsAt 1.5 months postpartum, 47.9%, 37.7%, and 14.4% of participants were feeding by direct breastfeeding only, mixed-mode feeding, and expressed breast milk only, respectively. Participants feeding expressed breast milk only were more likely to be supplementing with infant formula. When compared with participants who provided only direct breastfeeding, participants who gave only expressed breast milk at 1.5 months had 57% lower odds of breastfeeding continuation at three months postpartum. After stratification by infant formula supplementation, expressed breast milk feeding only at 1.5 months was associated with an increased risk of breastfeeding cessation in participants supplementing with infant formula (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 1.86, 95% CI = 1.17–2.95).ConclusionIn the first six months postpartum, giving only expressed breast milk is associated with early breastfeeding cessation, especially in participants who are also supplementing with infant formula.     

Mothers’ attitudes and beliefs about infant feeding highlight barriers to exclusive breastfeeding in American Samoa

BackgroundIn American Samoa, initiation of breastfeeding is almost universal but exclusive breastfeeding, a promising target for obesity prevention, is short in duration.Aims(1) To examine American Samoan mothers’ feeding experiences and attitudes and beliefs about infant feeding and (2) to identify potential barriers to exclusive breastfeeding.MethodsEighteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with American Samoan mothers at 16–32 days postpartum. Interviews focused on mother's knowledge and beliefs about infant feeding, how their infants were fed, why the mother had chosen this mode of infant feeding, and how decisions about feeding were made within her social surroundings. A thematic qualitative analysis was conducted to identify salient themes in the data.FindingsIntention to exclusively breastfeed did not predict practice; most women supplemented with formula despite intending to exclusively breastfeed. The benefits of breastfeeding were well-recognized, but the importance of exclusivity was missed. Formula-use was not preferred but considered an innocuous “back-up option” where breastfeeding was not possible or not sufficient for infant satiety. Identified barriers to exclusive breastfeeding included: the convenience of formula; perceptions among mothers that they were not producing enough breast milk; and pain while breastfeeding. The important support role of family for infant feeding could be utilized in intervention design.ConclusionThis study identified barriers to exclusive breastfeeding that can be immediately addressed by providers of breastfeeding support services. Further research is needed to address the common perception of insufficient milk in this setting.     

Breastfeeding as a means of contraception

The University of the Philippines Institute of Public Health (UPIPH) and the Family Health International (FHI) brought together health professionals, nutritionists, and family planning experts from different parts of the world to share and gain insights into the issue of breastfeeding and contraception. The participants met in Manila in 1983 and analyzed research findings on breastfeeding and discussed their implications relevant to nutrition and family planning policies and programs. Studies conducted in several countries show a general decline of breastfeeding practice in both urban and rural areas. The issue appears to be not whether women in developing countries breastfeed their infants but for how long. Popkin cites a study in Thailand, which showed very little change in the proportion of babies ever breastfed but large declines in the duration of breastfeeding from 1969-79. In the Philippines, national surveys since 1973 indicate that mothers throughout the country practice breastfeeding but do so for a relatively short period. Scientific data supporting the folk belief that breastfeeding delays the return of fertility after childbirth is growing. The phenomenon is believed to be governed by a sophisticated control mechanism in the female reproductive system. Some researchers suggest that prolactin may be responsible for the delay of fertility in breastfeeding mothers. In a series of studies done in the Philippines and Australia, researchers Barbara Gross and C.J. Eastman found that high prolactin levels were almost always associated with proloned amenorrhea during lactation. A decline in prolactin concentrations accompanied the resumption of menstruation. Gross and Eastman found evidence of ovulation before the 1st menses in only 1 out of 54 fully breastfeeding mothers, or less than 2%. This implies that at least the first few menses of most fully breastfeeding mothers are not accompanied by ovulation, suggesting that breastfeeding continues to affect fertility even after the resumption of breastfeeding. Zablan's study in the Philippine analyzed the various factors contributing to fertility reduction. Breastfeeding appeared to have the greatest impact on the Filipino woman's level of fertility. Zablan points out that, while breastfeeding is a major factor influencing fertility in the Philippines, it "can be relied upon only to postpone childbearing (and then only at the aggregate level), but not to prevent childbearing altogether." Much work needs to be done to help people realize the value of breastfeeding, to encourage mothers to practice it, and to do so for as long as possible.     

Intensive Parenting: Fertility and Breastfeeding Duration in the United States

Using 30 years of longitudinal data from a nationally representative cohort of women, we study the association between breastfeeding duration and completed fertility, fertility expectations, and birth spacing. We find that women who breastfeed their first child for five months or longer are a distinct group. They have more children overall and higher odds of having three or more children rather than two, compared with women who breastfeed for shorter durations or not at all. Expected fertility is associated with initiating breastfeeding but not with how long mothers breastfeed. Thus, women who breastfeed longer do not differ significantly from other breastfeeding women in their early fertility expectations. Rather, across the life course, these women achieve and even exceed their earlier fertility expectations. Women who breastfeed for shorter durations (1–21 weeks) are more likely to fall short of their expected fertility than to achieve or exceed their expectations, and they are significantly less likely than women who breastfeed for longer durations (≥22 weeks) to exceed their expected fertility. In contrast, women who breastfeed longer are as likely to exceed as to achieve their earlier expectations, and the difference between their probability of falling short versus exceeding their fertility expectations is relatively small and at the boundary of statistical significance (p = .096). These differences in fertility are not explained by differences in personal and family resources, including family income or labor market attachment. Our findings suggest that breastfeeding duration may serve as a proxy for identifying a distinct approach to parenting. Women who breastfeed longer have reproductive patterns quite different than their socioeconomic position would predict. They both have more children and invest more time in those children.     

Feeding Patterns and Emotional Care in Breastfed Infants

A number of studies have suggested breastfed infants have improved bonding and attachment or cognitive development outcomes. However, mechanisms by which these differences might develop are poorly understood. We used maternal time use data to examine whether exclusively breastfeeding mothers spend more time in close interactive behaviors with their infants than mothers who have commenced or completed weaning. Mothers (188) participating in a time use survey recorded infant feeding activities for 24 h over a 7 day period using an electronic device. Tracking was conducted at 3, 6, and 9 months postpartum. Data was collected for maternal activities including infant feeding and time spent in emotional care. The mothers of exclusively breastfed infants aged 3–6 months fed them frequently and total time spent in breastfeeding averaged around 17 h a week. Maternal time spent in emotional care was also substantial, and found to correlate positively with time spent breastfeeding. Exclusively breastfed infants received greatest amounts of emotional care from their mother, and exclusively formula fed infants the least. Mixed fed infants received more emotional care time than formula fed infants, but less than fully breastfed infants. These findings may help explain the differential cognitive developmental outcomes reported in the medical literature for breastfed and non breastfed infants.     

Indicators of ‘good’ feeding,breastfeeding latch,and feeding experiences among healthy women with healthy infants: A qualitative pathway analysis using Grounded Theory

BackgroundBreastfeeding behaviour remains a public health priority worldwide. Despite evidence-based guidelines, healthy women who give birth to healthy, term infants continue to face barriers to breastfeeding. Understanding women’s experiences of feeding in the early postnatal period is crucial to identify how support may be better tailored to improve breastfeeding outcomes, including women’s experiences.QuestionTo understand women’s experiences of infant feeding amongst healthy women who give birth to healthy, average-weight, term infants.MethodsGrounded Theory methodology was used to analyse data from a nested qualitative interview study. Twelve women between four and twelve months postpartum were recruited from a longitudinal cohort study and public advertisements. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for analysis.FindingsThree distinct themes were found, subsuming identified super-categories: Perceived indicators of ‘good’ feeding (infant ‘output’; infant crying; weight gain; feeding frequency and duration); Women’s experiences of breastfeeding latch (‘good’ latch; ‘bad’ latch with pain and discomfort); and Overall breastfeeding experience (positive; negative; and uncertain). Data suggest women give precedence to their latch experiences over indicators of ‘good’ feeding, highlighting breastfeeding latch as a possible mediating factor to the overall breastfeeding experience. Feeding experience can be achieved through four distinct pathways.DiscussionThe physical and psychological impacts of latch pain were pronounced. Even amongst healthy women with healthy infants, a positive breastfeeding experience overall was uncommon, highlighting the difficulties women continue to encounter. Understanding women’s perceptions of ‘good’ feeding, and ensuring a pain-free latch, may better support women to have a positive breastfeeding experience.     

Birth of a very low birth weight preterm infant and the intention to breastfeed 'naturally'

An interpretive phenomenological study involving 17 Australian parents was undertaken to explore parents' experiences of breastfeeding very low birth weight (VLBW) preterm infants from birth to 12 months of age. Data were collected from 45 individual interviews held with both mothers and fathers, which were then transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis. From this study, the analysis identified the following themes: the intention to breastfeed naturally; breast milk as connection; the maternal role of breast milk producer; breastmilk as the object of attention; breastfeeding and parenting the hospitalised baby and the demise of breastfeeding. The discussion presented here presents the theme of the intention to breastfeed 'naturally'. This study found that all of the participant women decided to breastfeed well before the preterm birth, and despite the birth of a VLBW preterm infant continued to expect the breastfeeding experience to be normal regardless of the difference of the postpartum experience. It is without doubt that for these parents the pro-breastfeeding rhetoric is powerfully influential and thus successful in promoting breastfeeding. Furthermore, all participants expected breastfeeding to be 'natural' and satisfying. There is disparity between parents' expectations of breastfeeding 'naturally' and the commonplace reality of long-term breast expression and uncertain at-breast feeding outcomes. How the parents came to make the decision to breastfeed their unborn child -- including the situations and experiences that have influenced their decision making -- and how the preterm birth and the dominant cultures subsequently affected that decision will be discussed. The findings have implications for midwifery education and maternity care professionals who support parents making feeding decisions early in pregnancy and those striving to breastfeed preterm infants.