HOW MARKET FRAGMENTATION CAN FACILITATE COLLUSION

Economists have recommended the fragmentation of capacities before regulated markets are liberalized because static oligopoly models imply that outcomes approximate perfect competition with a fragmented enough market structure. This intuition fails under collusion. When individual firms are capacity constrained relative to total demand, the fragmentation of capacity facilitates collusion and increases the highest sustainable collusive price. Collusive outcomes remain feasible even for arbitrarily fragmented capacity. These results can explain the finding in Sweeting (2007 , Economic Journal, 117, 654–685), that dramatic fragmentation of generation capacity in the English electricity industry did not reduce price cost margins.     

Assessment of Interindividual and Geographic Variability in Human Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter in Environmental Tobacco Smoke

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is a major contributor to indoor human exposures to fine particulate matter of 2.5 μm or smaller (PM_2.5). The Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation for Particulate Matter (SHEDS‐PM) Model developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates distributions of outdoor and indoor PM_2.5 exposure for a specified population based on ambient concentrations and indoor emissions sources. A critical assessment was conducted of the methodology and data used in SHEDS‐PM for estimation of indoor exposure to ETS. For the residential microenvironment, SHEDS uses a mass‐balance approach, which is comparable to best practices. The default inputs in SHEDS‐PM were reviewed and more recent and extensive data sources were identified. Sensitivity analysis was used to determine which inputs should be prioritized for updating. Data regarding the proportion of smokers and “other smokers” and cigarette emission rate were found to be important. SHEDS‐PM does not currently account for in‐vehicle ETS exposure; however, in‐vehicle ETS‐related PM_2.5 levels can exceed those in residential microenvironments by a factor of 10 or more. Therefore, a mass‐balance‐based methodology for estimating in‐vehicle ETS PM_2.5 concentration is evaluated. Recommendations are made regarding updating of input data and algorithms related to ETS exposure in the SHEDS‐PM model. Interindividual variability for ETS exposure was quantified. Geographic variability in ETS exposure was quantified based on the varying prevalence of smokers in five selected locations in the United States.     

基于风险效益均衡的发电侧碳排放权交易差价合约谈判模型

在由排放配额价格所引发的发电侧碳交易所和独立发电企业之间的排放权交易矛盾仍未解决的情况下,从理论方面引入排放权交易差价合约来规避发电企业的市场力并稳定排放配额价格。在此背景下,对考虑差价合约的排放权交易模式下碳交易所与发电企业的利润风险、经济效益进行了测度,在此基础上构建了二者之间合约谈判风险效益均衡模型,并给出了模型最优参数的求解程序,从而促进排放权供应与电能生产之间的协调与竞争型交易机制的形成。数值仿真与分析结果表明,本文所提出的模型可以有效规避发电侧排放权交易价格波动所带来的风险,且谈判双方面临的交易风险均与差价合约初始有效报价区间长度负相关。     

碳排放交易对实现我国“十二五”减排目标的成本节约效应研究

本文针对实现我国"十二五"期间减排目标的现实背景,构建了一个省际排放权交易模型,重点探讨了在实现各省减排目标的过程中,碳排放权交易机制发挥的成本节约效应。研究设置了无碳交易市场(NETS)、仅包含北京等六个碳交易试点省市的碳交易市场(PETS)和全国范围内实施碳排放权交易(CETS)三种政策情景。通过模型分析得到以下结论:(1)为实现"十二五"碳强度减排目标,扣除自然下降率,全国二氧化碳排放需要减少约6.39亿吨,占当年总碳排放的6.65%;无碳排放交易时全国需要付出约157.62亿元的减排成本,占当年GDP的0.04%;六省市参与碳交易情景下,全国总的减排成本约为150.66亿元,节约减排成本4.42%,碳交易量为0.22亿吨CO₂,占总减排量的3.39%,均衡碳价约为70.55元/吨CO₂;全国碳市场情景下,全国总的减排成本约为120.68亿元,相比于无碳排放交易情景节约减排成本23.44%,碳交易量为1.21亿吨CO₂,占总减排量的18.98%,均衡碳价约为38.17元/吨CO₂;(2)碳交易市场对参与交易的省份的成本节约效应各不相同,总的来看,东、西部地区成本节约较为明显,部分西部地区能够在完成自身减排目标前提下,通过加入碳交易市场而获取正的收益。     

Electricity Time‐of‐Use Tariff with Stochastic Demand

In this article, we study the electricity time‐of‐use (TOU) tariff for an electricity company with stochastic demand. The electricity company offers the flat rate (FR) and TOU tariffs to customers. Under the FR tariff, the customer pays a flat price for electricity consumption in both the peak and non‐peak periods. Under the TOU tariff, the customer pays a high price for electricity consumption in the peak period and a low price for electricity consumption in the non‐peak period. The electricity company uses two technologies, namely the base‐load and peak‐load technologies, to generate electricity. We derive the optimal capacity investment and pricing decisions for the electricity company. Furthermore, we use real data from a case study to validate the results and derive insights for implementing the TOU tariff. We show that in almost all the cases, the electricity company needs less capacity for both technologies under the TOU tariff than under the FR tariff, even though the expected demand in the non‐peak period increases. In addition, except for some extreme cases, there is essentially no signicant reduction in the total demand of the two periods, although the TOU tariff can reduce the demand in the peak period. Under the price‐cap regulation, the customer may pay a lower price on average under the TOU tariff than under the FR tariff. We conduct an extensive numerical study to assess the impacts of the model parameters on the optimal solutions and the robustness of the analytical results, and generate managerial implications of the research findings.     

Risk assessment methodologies for passive smoking-induced lung cancer

Risk assessment methodologies have been successfully applied to control societal risk from outdoor air pollutants. They are now being applied to indoor air pollutants such as environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and radon. Nonsmokers' exposures to ETS have been assessed based on dosimetry of nicotine, its metabolite, continine, and on exposure to the particulate phase of ETS. Lung cancer responses have been based on both the epidemiology of active and of passive smoking. Nine risk assessments of nonsmokers' lung cancer risk from exposure to ETS have been performed. Some have estimated risks for lifelong nonsmokers only; others have included ex-smokers; still others have estimated total deaths from all causes. To facilitate interstudy comparison, in some cases lung cancers had to be interpolated from a total, or the authors' original estimate had to be adjusted to include ex-smokers. Further, all estimates were adjusted to 1988. Excluding one study whose estimate differs from the mean of the others by two orders of magnitude, the remaining risk assessments are in remarkable agreement. The mean estimate is approximately 5000 +/- 2400 nonsmokers' lung cancer deaths (LCDSs) per year. This is a 25% greater risk to nonsmokers than is indoor radon, and is about 57 times greater than the combined estimated cancer risk from all the hazardous outdoor air pollutants currently regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency: airborne radionuclides, asbestos, arsenic, benzene, coke oven emissions, and vinyl chloride.     

Technology Choice and Capacity Portfolios under Emissions Regulation

We study the impact of emissions tax and emissions cap‐and‐trade regulation on a firm's technology choice and capacity decisions. We show that emissions price uncertainty under cap‐and‐trade results in greater expected profit than a constant emissions price under an emissions tax, which contradicts popular arguments that the greater uncertainty under cap‐and‐trade will erode value. We further show that two operational drivers underlie this result: (i) the firm's option not to operate, which effectively right‐censors the uncertain emissions price; and (ii) dispatch flexibility, which is the firm's ability to first deploy its most profitable capacity given the realized emissions price. In addition to these managerial insights, we also explore policy implications: the effect of emissions price level, and the effect of investment and production subsidies. Through an illustrative example, we show that production subsidies of higher investment and production cost technologies (such as carbon capture and storage technologies) have no effect on the firm's optimal total capacity when firms own a portfolio of both clean and dirty technologies, but that investment subsidies of these technologies increase the firm's total capacity, conditionally increasing expected emissions. A subsidy of a lower production cost technology, on the other hand, has no effect on the firm's optimal total capacity in multi‐technology portfolios, regardless of whether the subsidy is a production or investment subsidy.     

中国风电固定上网电价政策的实物期权理论与实证分析

本文使用实物期权方法研究中国目前实施的风电固定上网电价政策。首先说明风电项目投资的实物期权原理,并建立风电固定上网电价政策实物期权模型。然后,从理论上证明了风电最优投资电价与上网电价波动率成正比(固定上网电价理论依据,即政府为了最大限度激励投资者,使得上网电价波动率等于0);最优投资电价与上网电价期望增长率成正比(固定上网电价调整理论依据)。最后,选取河北张北油篓沟元山子风电场工程项目进行实证分析,通过上网电价期望增长率调整的数值分析得到中国风电上网电价平均每年降低幅度应该为1%左右。本文为我国可再生能源电价调整提供参考。     

考虑碳价下限的燃煤发电碳减排投资及其政策分析

燃煤发电是电力供应保障的重要基础,也是二氧化碳排放的主要来源之一。论文针对碳排放权价格（碳价）、燃煤发电商上网电量以及碳减排设施的单位运维成本都随机波动的情况,构建考虑碳价下限的燃煤发电商碳减排投资实物期权模型,在模型求解基础上,针对某60万千瓦燃煤发电机组,通过数值仿真方法,考察碳价下限对碳减排预期投资时间的影响,并探讨碳价初值、碳减排单位运维成本初值如何影响碳价下限政策的有效性,比较碳价下限与直接投资补贴政策的优劣,分析结果表明：（1）碳价下限政策可能会激励燃煤发电商提早进行碳减排投资,但提高碳价下限不一定能降低碳减排投资阈值;（2）碳价下限政策实施的有效区域由碳价初值、碳减排单位运维成本初值等参数有关,在该有效区域内,通过碳价下限的调整可调节碳减排投资的预期时间;（3）相对于直接投资补贴政策,碳价下限能显著节省补贴资金。     

Uncertainty and Variability in Health-Related Damages from Coal-Fired Power Plants in the United States

The health‐related damages associated with emissions from coal‐fired power plants can vary greatly across facilities as a function of plant, site, and population characteristics, but the degree of variability and the contributing factors have not been formally evaluated. In this study, we modeled the monetized damages associated with 407 coal‐fired power plants in the United States, focusing on premature mortality from fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). We applied a reduced‐form chemistry‐transport model accounting for primary PM_2.5 emissions and the influence of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions on secondary particulate formation. Outputs were linked with a concentration‐response function for PM_2.5‐related mortality that incorporated nonlinearities and model uncertainty. We valued mortality with a value of statistical life approach, characterizing and propagating uncertainties in all model elements. At the median of the plant‐specific uncertainty distributions, damages across plants ranged from $30,000 to $500,000 per ton of PM_2.5, $6,000 to $50,000 per ton of SO₂, $500 to $15,000 per ton of NO_x, and $0.02 to $1.57 per kilowatt‐hour of electricity generated. Variability in damages per ton of emissions was almost entirely explained by population exposure per unit emissions (intake fraction), which itself was related to atmospheric conditions and the population size at various distances from the power plant. Variability in damages per kilowatt‐hour was highly correlated with SO₂ emissions, related to fuel and control technology characteristics, but was also correlated with atmospheric conditions and population size at various distances. Our findings emphasize that control strategies that consider variability in damages across facilities would yield more efficient outcomes.     

基于碳限额与交易机制的上下游企业可再生能源投资策略研究

本文在碳限额与交易机制的背景下,构建了由发电商与售电商组成的二级电力供应链,考虑了发电商投资可再生能源与售电商投资可再生能源两种不同情形。在此基础上,研究了电价与可再生能源投资决策问题。通过比较不同情形下的均衡结果,主要的研究结果如下：(1)相对于发电商投资可再生能源的情形而言,售电商投资可再生能源的情形中将有更多的投资量。(2)在发电商投资可再生能源的情形中,售电商的利润低于发电商的利润;而在售电商投资可再生能源的情形中,售电商的利润高于发电商的利润。(3)可再生能源投资成本系数的增加,将降低可再生能源的投资量、电价和电力需求量,从而导致售电商利润会减少,但发电商利润会增加。(4)可再生能源偏好系数的增加使得售电商利润增加,发电商利润减少。     

中国电力市场长期产业组织架构与电价趋势研究

为了分析售电侧电力市场化改革背景下中国电力市场长期产业组织架构形态和均衡电价变动趋势,本文根据售电公司在电力批发市场和零售市场的双边讨价还价博弈行为,构建了长期模式下独立售电公司、寄生公司和电力批发商三者之间的两阶段Stackelberg博弈模型,结合博弈的均衡状态,比较分析了长期和短期改革效果,并进一步讨论了均衡电价的影响因素和变动情况。结果表明：（1）长期电力市场的均衡批发电价低于完全垄断时期的均衡批发电价,售电侧放开对于降电价效果明显。（2）在改革效果方面,相较于短期改革而言,竞争性的长期改革形态更加有效,长期均衡电价和均衡批发电价随贴现率的波动小于短期,市场更加稳定。（3）在政策实施层面,随着改革推进和竞争程度增加,调整对象从电力批发商逐步过渡到售电公司,有助于保障售电市场竞争的公平和效率。     

EXPLORING MARKET PRICING STRATEGIES VIA DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

Price determinants as well as strategies can be studies by use of simulation, particularly if cost and price relationships can be related to market activity [1] [9] [11]. But, through the use of dynamic programming, given the market conditions, one can extend the analysis to include an optimal strategy. This paper describes a dynamic programming approach to studying price strategy. A model is developed to show that in a market characterized by cost/volume and price/volume relationships, profitability can be extended beyond that resulting from a dominant market strategy to an optimal maximizing strategy. Extension of the model is suggested for studying (a) sensitivity of a strategy (solution) to price level and cost changes, (b) optimal timing of withdrawal, and (c) present value analysis.     

欧盟碳市场系统风险和预期收益的实证研究

运用CAPM模型分析了欧盟排放贸易体系(EU ETS)市场风险,通过Zipf技术研究不同预期收益下碳价波动行为。结果显示:2005～2007年第2阶段单个合约对市场风险敏感性小于第1阶段。2005～2007年的系统风险和2008～2009年较为一致,而前者的非系统风险是后者的10倍以上;2008～2009年碳市场的超额收益率较低,小于0.02%;碳价的上涨和下跌概率是不对称的,在预期收益率为20%和投资时间为250天的情况下,下跌概率高于上涨概率10%;在较低的预期收益下,碳价的涨跌受到了市场机制、季节性、异质性事件的影响;在高预期收益率下,投资者对碳价变动认知较不稳定,风险较大。     

需求响应下解决交叉补贴的阶梯电价方案研究——基于社会福利最大化视角

我国电价交叉补贴问题非常严重，其无论从经济效率还是公平上而言都是不合理的，必须尽快解决。通过对现行电价政策分析，阶梯电价政策可以解决交叉补贴问题，但现行方案效果不明显，因此需要调整。不仅如此，由于各档次用户对电价变化的需求响应程度存在差异，调整阶梯电价来解决交叉补贴的方案有许多，故存在一个社会福利最大化的解决方案。本文以社会福利最大化为目标，调整各档用户的电价，同时引入拉格朗日函数，设计出最优解决交叉补贴问题的阶梯电价方案，得到各档相应的电价比值。结果表明，当分档电价比值为1：1.62：2.41时社会福利存在极大值，此时阶梯电价方案是众多方案中的最优方案，社会福利全年增加约为702.00亿元。此方案在解决交叉补贴问题的基础上还兼顾了用户间公平和承受能力，对当前电价改革具有重要参考价值。     

LIBERALIZING A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: THE EUROPEAN CAR MARKET

We quantify the competitive effects of liberalizing the selective and exclusive distribution system in the European car market, based on a model of oligopoly pricing with differentiated products. We consider two possible competitive effects from liberalization: (i) the creation of international intrabrand competition (cross‐border trade), which will result in a reduction of international price discrimination; and (ii) a possible cumulative effect arising from a strengthening of national intrabrand competition, which would result in reduced double marginalization. We find that the reduction in international price discrimination mainly redistributes consumer gains across countries; it has a positive but modest effect on total welfare. If liberalization also has the cumulative effect of reducing double marginalization, the welfare effects are much higher. Finally, we find that the effects of liberalization on the manufacturers' profits are either small or positive. This finding implies that international price discrimination, and softening competition through a double marginalization mechanism, should not be interpreted as main profit motives for the previous distribution system, but only as unintended side effects. Hence, the industry rationale for maintaining the previous distribution system should be sought in other areas. (JEL: F15, L42)     

多市场协同下的可再生能源电力竞价策略研究

为了实现电力行业低碳转型，我国正逐步建立和完善全国碳配额与交易市场和绿色电力证书市场。如何设计和协调市场政策目标以推动可再生能源电力平价上网是我国电力系统绿色低碳化转型的关键。本文构建了多市场协同下的电力企业竞价模型，研究碳市场、绿证市场与电力市场的价格形成和市场之间的价格传导路径，分析多市场协同作用下电力企业竞价策略的差异。研究结果表明：多市场协同对减少碳排放和促进可再生能源发展有显著效果，收紧碳配额供应和提高绿证配额的市场协同机制能够为可再生能源发电企业创造新的利润增长点，增加传统能源发电成本，缩小可再生能源电力和传统能源电力的价格差异。本文揭示了多个市场之间内在的协同机理，有助于政策制定者充分考虑到市场间的协同关系，从而制定更加高效的减排和可再生能源发展政策。     

煤电差价合约及其合作效益优化分配的博弈模型

随着煤炭市场的规模化、集中化的出现,煤炭商利用其市场力哄抬煤炭市场价格的现象自然会出现,而煤炭价格的上涨又会带来发电上网价格、供电销售价格的上涨。可见,控制煤炭商市场力可以从源头有效管理能源价格问题。本文设计了煤电的差价合约模型,然后运用Cournot寡头垄断模型论述差价合约对煤炭商的生产行为与发电商的决策行为的影响,运用Stackelberg寡头垄断模型论述发电商之间合作对其效应的影响,并通过Shapley原理给出了发电商之间合作利益分配模型。通过算例模拟发现,煤电差价合约可以促使煤炭商增加生产量,降低煤炭市场价格,稳定销售量,而发电商的合作行为使这种效应更加明显。     

短期电价预测的组合混沌方法

电力市场中,电价的变化呈现的是一种非线性的、动态开放的过程,传统的方法已很难提高其预测精度。为此,本文提出一种基于小波变换、计量经济学模型和径向基函数网络的组合混沌预测方法。首先利用小波变换将原电价序列分解、重构成概貌序列和细节序列;在此基础上,针对不同的子序列建立不同的模型,并进行预测;最后将所有子序列的预测结果求和,作为最终的预测值。对西班牙电力市场短期电价的预测表明,该方法具有很高的预测精度。     

股票投资组合流动性风险度量模型：构建与检验

流动性是股票市场的重要属性,是金融市场微观结构理论研究的重要议题,但对流动性进行准确的定义和度量却是一件困难的事情。本文从投资者实际投资时所面临的价格冲击入手,提出了流动性风险的概念,并定义了两个流动性风险的度量指标Q和Q_var。最后利用上海证券交易所样本股的日交易数据进行了实证研究,得出了分散化不仅可以降低价格波动的风险,还可以降低流动性风险的结论。