Occupational Segregation and the Female–Male Wage Differentials: Evidence for Spain

Using matched employer–employee data from the Spanish labour market in 2010, we analyse the effects of industrial, establishment and occupational segregation on the gender wage differential, disaggregating the latter contribution by different groups of workers belonging to different occupational areas and responsibility levels. These workers are employed in 61 occupations within 26,492 establishments in 51 different industries. Since the matched employer–employee data exhibit a particular type of grouped structure, which contrasts the statistical properties of such data with the random sample case, we estimate the effects of each type of gender segregation on the wage gap using a robust specification. We find that the major part of the contribution of gender segregation is not explained by differences in the observable characteristics. Furthermore, the estimations show that the educational female advantage has helped to narrow the gender wage gap caused by occupational segregation within each establishment only for those groups of workers with the lowest educational requirements.     

我国工资水平差距分析：歧视性工资现象

利用2012年全国31个省的微观调查数据,在经济区域划分的基础上,采用Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法对劳动力市场的工资差距、歧视性工资结构进行了分析及解释。研究结果表明：从与个人相关的户籍工资差距、性别工资差距、民族工资差距分析结果来看,劳动力市场的歧视仍是工资不平等的主要根源。教育在缩小户籍工资差异方面起着重要作用,技术水平在缩小性别工资差异方面不容忽视,工作经验可以缩小民族工资差异。从歧视性工资结构来看,经济越发达的区域,流动人口在教育上的歧视、女性在年龄上的歧视、少数民族在教育和工作经验方面的歧视越凸显;从与收入群体利益相关的行业工资差距分析结果来看,教育回报率总体在增加。随着区域经济的发展,行业歧视性工资表现由对劳动者的年龄和健康程度歧视转变成对劳动者受教育水平和工作年限上。     

农民工内部工资差异研究

文章运用均值分解和分位数回归分解方法考察了受雇型农民工内部因所有制、行业和区域等分割因素所导致的市场分层和工资差异.研究发现,所有制、行业和区域等分割性因素解释农民工内部工资歧视的占比超过人力资本等特征因素所解释的工资差异占比.分位数回归分解显示,农民工基于所有制和行业分层的收入差异存在“天花板效应”,基于区域分层的收入差异存在“粘地板效应”.前者与经济结构调整导致行业间的工资分化有关,后者与区域经济发展差距、区域间最低工资标准差异以及就业区域选择的累积效应等因素密不可分.而且,同一所有制或行业内部的农民工存在明显的区域收入差距,呈现东高西低特征.农民工内部“工资歧视”只是城市社会对农民工群体歧视的另一种表现形式.     

国际贸易与收入不平等研究

The global economy is increasingly growing into two prominent trends: there is an ever closer economic connection among countries,while at the same time wage gap is exacerbating in these countries. To analyze the casual relations between economic globalization and wage inequality, this paper reviews literature related to this issue and sorts them out from 4 aspects:H O model,firm heterogeneity,outsourcing and firm’s technology choice. Research shows that the classical H O model is very restricted,while firm heterogeneity,combining effective wage,matching and labor market friction can have influence on workers’ wage;outsourcing between countries with different structures can have different impacts on heterogeneous workers’ wage,and technology choice increases workers’ skill wage premia. Research shows that globalization has few or no significant impact on wage gapamong heterogeneous workers,and trade barriers can greatly impair firms’ technological innovation and skill wage premia. Therefore,developing free trade,deepening international trade cooperation and expanding openness can improve industrial innovation,enhance skill wage premia,thus to achieve further “modernization” of firms and workers.     

The Cost of Doing Femininity: Gendered Disparities in Pricing of Personal Care Products and Services

Economic discrimination has been a major focus of gender research for the past several decades and such studies reveal a persistent gender wage gap. This study examines another aspect of the interaction between gender and the economy that has been largely ignored by social scientists—gender-based disparities in the cost of goods and services in the personal care industry. We examine prices charged for personal care products and services that are targeted toward women or men and find that women pay more than men for certain items and services. Our research suggests that although the differences are not uniform across types of services or products, women do tend to pay more than men for items such as deodorant, haircuts, and dry-cleaning. We suggest that such practices contribute to gender inequality by increasing women’s economic burden and reinforcing essentialist thinking about gender (i.e., that women and men are biologically different).     

劳动力市场多重分割下的城乡劳动力工资差异及其分解

文章主要回答多重分割下的劳动力市场城乡户籍劳动者工资差异问题。采用CFPS2014基线调查数据，基于Neumark和Brown分解方法，考察中国劳动力市场多重分割下城乡户籍劳动者的工资差异及其原因。结果表明，中国行业、所有制、职业与区域城市劳动者的工资水平明显高于农村劳动者；Neumark分解的结果表明，城乡户籍劳动者工资差异的82.24%是由劳动者个体特征引起的，教育水平的差异是引致城乡劳动者工资差异的主要原因；还有17.76%的差异由户籍歧视造成。进一步Brown分解显示，无论在行业、所有制、职业及区域分割下，就业机会差异均不是导致城乡户籍劳动者工资差异的主要原因，部门内部城乡户籍劳动者同工却不同酬是户籍歧视的主要原因。文章在两个方面丰富了现有研究：利用Neumark和Brown等多种工资分解方法深入分析劳动力市场多重分割对城乡工资差异的影响，从劳动者个体特征和市场歧视两个视角为城乡户籍劳动者工资收入差异的特征事实提供了一个新的解释；采用微观数据考察城乡劳动者工资差异，更加深入揭示中国劳动力市场多重分割背景下城乡户籍劳动者工资的微观差异，为劳动力市场多重分割对城乡户籍劳动者工资差异的影响提供了最直接的经验证据。     

越南国企改革的性别视角分析

在进行国企改革前,诸如职业性别隔离、“玻璃天花板”现象、收入性别差异等越南就业结构的性别差异就已存在。越南国企改革不仅未有效消除这一差异,反而使其呈现强化的趋势,其表层原因是单位制的功能泛化与市场经济体制下的效率优先之间存在矛盾,其深层原因则是由私人领域传导到公共领域的社会性别分层机制的巨大影响。     

人口流动对我国居民收入差距影响的回归分解研究

使用"2005年全国1%人口抽样调查数据"和"中国住户收支调查数据"数据库,通过回归分解技术探讨了在控制年龄、性别、地区、受教育程度、行业等变量的前提下,劳动力人口流动对我国居民收入差距的影响。实证分析表明,忽视劳动力人口流动因素,将高估城镇居民收入水平和低估农村居民收入水平,从而夸大我国城乡居民收入差距,造成"推动城镇化就可以显著缩小居民收入差距"的政策误判。分析表明,要缩小我国居民收入差距,更应该把眼光放在如何缩小受教育度差异、地区差异和行业差异等相关措施上。     

Gender differences in the canadian economy, with some comparisons to the United States (Part II: Earnings, low incomes, and the allocation of time)

In this sequel to our previous paper, we again look at gender comparisons for the Canadian economy, which we again compare and contrast with the analogous comparisons for the United States economy. Once again, we attempt to ascertain, how different are the various gender comparisons in the two countries. Once again, our principal data sources are Statistics Canada, particularly the two excellent volumes on Women in Canada, for the Canadian figures and Joyce Jacobsen’s fine compilations in her text (1998) for the U.S. figures. In this part of the study, we look principally at income-related matters, such as the gender wage gap and various decompositions of this phenomenon, such as earnings by age of earner and the incidence of low incomes. The second major section of this paper explores questions of time usage and, in particular, how the two genders search for employment when unemployed. Our final section states some tentative conclusions, including our speculative thoughts on why most gender comparisons are so similar on the two sides of the Canadian-American border. Ronald G. Bodkin was professor of Economics at the University of Ottawa from 1975 to June 2001. A revised and shortened version of this paper was presented at the Ottawa Meetings of the Canadian Economics Association, May 1998, and at the 1999 IAFFE Conference on Feminist Economics, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, June 1999.     

出口产品质量与技能工资差距

在全球价值链视角下，基于出口产品质量改善的权属状况，理论阐释并实证检验出口产品质量升级的全球价值链攀升效应及其对技能工资差距的影响。研究结论是：相对于利用外资获得的出口产品质量改善，体现国内要素贡献的本土出口产品质量升级更有助于出口行业攀升全球价值链；全球价值链升级拉大了技能工资差距；本土出口产品质量提高在直接扩大技能工资差距的同时，通过全球价值链攀升机制间接扩大了技能工资差距，利用外资获得的出口产品质量升级，通过负向的全球价值链攀升效应间接降低了技能工资差距；在中间投入品进口较多、加工贸易占比较高、外资参与度较高的行业，最终产品出口质量虽然较高，但并未通过全球价值链攀升机制扩大技能工资差距；高技术行业出口产品质量升级更容易拉大技能工资差距。因此，在提高本土出口产品质量，促进出口行业攀升全球价值链高端的同时，要注重高质量外贸发展与技能工资差距缩小的良性互动。     

劳动力流动、农民人均工资性收入与城乡收入差距

农民工资地区趋同、行业差异区域缩小、城乡收入差距与农村居民工资性收入占比同势变化的中国城乡经济特征事实,表明劳动力用脚投票,流向差距小的地区,同时也发现劳动力流动、农民人均工资性收入和城乡收入差距存在因果循环关系,并运用1990-2012年中国省级面板数据,建立联立方程模型进行计量分析,检验结果表明:农民受教育水平与人均工资性收入呈现非线性关系.劳动力流动是农民人均工资性收入及份额提高的重要途径,增加地区的农民人均工资性收入份额是改变城乡收入差距空间格局的重要手段.因此,流入地中城乡收入差距大的地区可以通过吸引更多农村流动劳动力而改善本地区的城乡收入差距,流出地则可以通过增加更多的流出人口缩小该地区的城乡收入差距.然而从流入地农民人均工资性收入在区域间所占比重看,容易形成“城乡收入差距大—农民工资性收入份额低—城乡收入差距大”的恶性循环.从农村劳动力流动视角解释城乡收入差距空间格局保持不变的原因在于,农村劳动力的流动会使流入地的农民人均工资性收入及份额增加幅度、城乡收入差距的缩小幅度均超过流出地.     

中间品贸易对中国相对工资差距的影响——基于9个省市的面板数据分析

通过建立模型,分析了中国的中间品贸易对技术劳动和非技术劳动的劳动需求弹性的改变进而对工资差距的影响,并选取中国加工贸易前九强省市的数据进行实证检验。劳动者的需求弹性受中间投入品的生产效应、替代效应和行业效应的影响。中间品贸易的扩大使得技术劳动工资的上涨大于非技术劳动工资的上涨。加工贸易出口增长带来的生产效应扩大了不同技能劳动的需求,但较低的价值链生产环节固化并压制了非技术劳动工资的增长,造成相对工资差距扩大。     

大学毕业生实际就业收入的性别差异：分布、成因与对策

目前对大学毕业生实际就业收入性别差异的系统性研究缺乏。大学毕业生实际就业收入存在明显性别差异,且有扩大趋势。在教育层次、就业行业、职业岗位、学科专业和实习期等方面,男大学毕业生的就业收入高于女大学毕业生。就业期望收入的性别差异、行业职业的性别隔离和用人单位的性别歧视等是导致大学毕业生实际就业收入性别差异的主要因素。加强女大学毕业生创业就业教育,完善公平就业的制度建设以及优化性别平等的社会文化环境,减少对女性的性别歧视是缩小男女大学毕业生实际就业收入差异的关键。     

Why do “Women’s jobs” have low pay for their educational level?

Jobs held largely by women have low pay for the amount of education they require. Why is this? One hypothesis is that employers prefer to hire men, and all workers prefer better jobs, so that women can get in only when a job's rewards (relative to its skill requirements) are low enough that men no longer want the job. Thus, wages affect sex composition. Others see the causal arrow to run the other way. In this view, the sex composition of jobs affects the wage that employers offer; employers' biased perceptions lead them to see jobs as less important and less payworthy if they are filled largely by women. These explanations are not mutually exclusive; the causal arrow may run both ways (or neither way). In this paper we use CPS data from 1984 to 1991 and a cross-lag panel model to examine these effects. Jobs are defined with a detailed occupational category within a specific broad industry category. We find that jobs with a higher percentage of females at one point have slower wage growth (or steeper wage decline) for both men and women in the ensuing years. But we find no effect of earlier wage rate on later sex composition. For those interested in reducing gender inequality in earnings, these findings suggest the utility of “comparable worth” policies.     

The Human Capital Model and Federal Employees’ Pay: Gender, Veteran Status, and Occupation

Do the human capital variables education and experience, and the chosen occupations for which male and female veterans and nonveterans qualify affect pay in the federal civil service? Are the strength and direction of relationships similar before and after the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan? When compared to federal employees in other agencies, are differences in pay based on gender and veteran status the same for those who work for the Department of Defense (DOD)? This is an ordinary least squares regression analysis of Office of Personnel Management records for a 1 % random sample of federal employees in 2000 and 2009. These regression models based on the Human Capital Model, data from years before and after the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and separate analyses for DOD and non-DOD agencies differ from earlier analyses. Whether or not an employee works for the DOD, years of education and experience are significantly related to pay. In addition, between 2000 and 2009 the gender-based wage gap for nonveterans decreased while the gap between the pay of the reference group and male and female veterans grew for federal employees who did not work for the DOD. In the same years, for DOD employees there are fewer differences in pay based on veteran status and gender and race. With some exceptions for the DOD, the significant positive relationships between pay and occupation became significant negative relationships when the pay of women in each occupation was analyzed.     

建筑行业的薪酬制度

随着建筑业用人制度的改革,薪酬制度越来越成为影响人才配置的一个重要因素。现行建筑行业薪酬制度的主要形式有岗位工资制和技能工资制,虽然各有其独特的优越性,但不能体现出员工相对价值的大小。薪酬制度的市场机制还未形成、员工薪酬和市场价格不相符、分配方式单一等现实决定了重新设计建筑业薪酬制度的必要性,其内容包括设计原则、方法及步骤,从而可以促进建筑业薪酬制度的改革。     

工业智能化对行业收入差距的影响

从生产效率和市场竞争两个视角对工业智能化和行业收入差距的关系进行理论分析,结合2003—2019年我国地区及行业层面的数据,采用固定效应、广义矩估计等方法,以制造业为例考察了工业智能化对行业收入差距的影响。研究表明：工业智能化对我国行业间收入差距具有显著的抑制作用,且不同行业对智能化技术的吸收存在差异,传统制造业行业在应用智能化技术后与其他行业的收入差距得到了明显缓解;行业间生产率差异的缩小和市场竞争程度的加剧是其重要传导机制。不同行业在推进工业智能化进程中应制定差异化发展策略,防止其对收入分配产生不利影响。     

湖南省性别工资差异及其影响因素研究——基于家务劳动时间的视角

通过建立理论模型,并用2014年湖南省5县区20个城乡社区的调查数据,从家务劳动时间的视角分析湖南劳动力市场的性别工资差异及其影响因素。结果发现,家务劳动时间是影响湖南劳动力市场性别工资差异的重要因素,同时其他影响因素还有月工资收入、受教育程度、行业等,但职务职称对性别工资差异的影响存在不确定性。因此,政府应大力发展家庭服务业,建立健全覆盖城乡的家庭服务体系,基本满足家庭的服务需求,使女性从家务劳动中解脱出来,同时应通过政策倾斜确保女性培训比例,增强就业竞争实力;规范劳动合同,维护私有及民营企业女性从业者在劳动就业、社会保障等方面的合法权益。     

湖南省“十一五”以来收入分配格局及其优化

湖南省近年收入分配格局呈现收入总额大幅增加、城乡居民收入增长落后于国内生产总值增长、城乡居民收入绝对差距拉大但相对差距缩小、城镇居民地区间收入差距扩大但内部收入相对差距总体缩小、农村居民地区间和内部收入差距均呈扩大趋势等特征。究其原因,劳动报酬占比下降、区域经济发展不平衡和工资性收入、经营性收入偏低等是形成当前湖南省收入分配格局的重要因素。为此,提出应做大做强经济蛋糕、深化收入分配改革、加强区域统筹和分类指导、完善工资形成和增长机制、改善农业经营效益等,优化湖南省收入分配格局。     

我国环保产业的现状、存在问题及发展对策思考

环保产业作为一个新兴产业 ,被认为是 2 1世纪最具发展潜力的产业。文章介绍了我国环保产业的现状及发展特点 ,分析了我国环保产业存在的问题 ,提出了加快环保产业立法、调整产业结构、建立统一市场、促进产业技术进步等我国环保产业发展的对策