Top Management Team Internationalization and Firm-level Internationalization: The Moderating Effects of Home-region Institutional Diversity and Firm Global Focus

The factors that determine firms' levels of internationalization remain a focal area of international business research. Within this research stream, studies building on the upper echelons theory have investigated the influence of the demographic characteristics of the top management team (TMT) on firms' international expansion. However, the literature to date has overlooked the TMT's overall degree of internationalization as a key driver of firm-level internationalization. In our paper, we argue that by having self-selected into careers abroad, foreign TMT members by definition have a higher cognitive tolerance of foreignness than domestic TMT members do. We theorize that foreign TMT members' higher cognitive tolerance for foreignness enhances the overall TMT's level of international attention and international trust, thereby facilitating strategic decisions that favor firm-level internationalization. Additionally, we propose two key contingencies that attenuate this relationship: the institutional diversity of the firm's home region and the firm's global focus. Analysis of Fortune Global 500 firms supports the hypothesized relationship between TMT internationalization and firm-level internationalization, as well as the two moderation effects.     

Internationalization from Central and Eastern Europe: A systematic literature review

Economic transition in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) has led to a dramatic increase in CEE firms' participation in international markets. This applies to different types of firms – from large emerging market multinationals to small international new ventures. In this paper, we systematically review the research on CEE outward internationalization, which we define as internationalization of CEE-based firms in the form of exporting or FDI, and contribute to literature by providing a complete picture of the state of the art and outlining potential avenues for future research. We find that while the CEE region has been described as a fruitful ground for developing new and testing existing theories, it heavily loads on the latter. We suggest that greater reliance on theories and concepts from the field of entrepreneurship and a stronger focus on internationalization decision processes might further enrich our understanding of internationalization from CEE.     

创业导向与探索式创新的关系：一个双中介效应模型

  创业导向对探索式创新的影响决定创业企业在不确定商业生态环境中的市场机会捕捉能力和价值创造效果。虽然已有研究部分证实了创业导向与探索式创新的相互作用,但面对创业企业生存环境不确定性更高、资源约束更明显的事实,创业企业如何借助合理的战略决策和高效的资源使用行为帮助自身实现由生存到发展的过渡显得尤为重要,鲜有研究对此类问题予以深入探讨。         基于战略创业理论、创新管理理论和资源基础观理论,以创业导向为解释变量,以探索式创新为被解释变量,引入战略灵活性和创业拼凑两个可能影响导向与产出关系的关键要素,探讨创业导向对探索式创新的直接影响,以及战略灵活性和创业拼凑可能起到的特殊中介作用。借鉴并改进已有研究的成熟量表形成问卷,选取深圳的创业企业为调研对象,以电子邮件的形式发放问卷,基于最终获得的283份有效问卷,采用结构方程和双中介模型的研究方法,全面检验创业导向、战略灵活性、创业拼凑与探索式创新之间的关系。         研究结果表明,创业导向、战略灵活性和创业拼凑均对探索式创新产生促进作用;创业导向与战略灵活性呈显著的正相关关系,也对创业拼凑产生积极影响;战略灵活性与创业拼凑呈显著的正相关关系。创业拼凑在创业导向与探索式创新之间和战略灵活性与探索式创新之间起部分中介作用。由战略灵活性和创业拼凑形成的中介链部分中介了创业导向与探索式创新之间的关系。         研究结论从导向-策略-行为-产出的研究框架拓展了战略创业理论的研究内容,揭示了创业导向、战略灵活性、创业拼凑与探索式创新之间的关系机理,为创业企业理解战略灵活性和创业拼凑的影响、充分实践和发挥创业导向的创新精神、促进探索式创新活动的持续开展提供了重要的理论依据和经验证据。     

基于不同战略导向的创新选择与控制方式研究

本文从战略导向的角度出发,研究了企业的创新选择和管理控制方式选择问题.从战略思维和组织学习两个方面对企业家导向和市场导向在创新程度和管理控制方式上的不同进行了分析,提出概念模型和理论假设.利用从10个省市不同行业得到的585家企业有效样本数据的分析,验证了本文的理论模型.分析结果表明,企业家导向更加注重突破式创新并通过战略控制对其进行管理,而市场导向更加注重渐进创新并通过财务控制对其进行管理.分析结果还表明虽然企业家导向与渐进创新没有直接关系,但却可以通过财务控制方式鼓励企业中渐进创新的出现.     

Strategy formulation for the smaller firm—A practical approach

There are many models and processes aimed at helping the managers of business enterprises in making strategic decisions. However, most of this work is oriented toward large organizations. In this paper, a model based on empirical data observations in 20 small Dutch firms is presented. This is a practical model giving the managers a guideline with checklists to follow in making strategic decisions. The significant characteristics of the model include the capabilities of the managers of small business firms. It attempts to fill the gap which exists between sophisticated theory and the decision-making tools that are used by the entrepreneur. The model was successfully used by approximately 50 firms and this paper demonstrates its applicability and discusses the problems encountered.     

The Moderating Influence of Competitive Intensity on the Relationship between CEOs' Regulatory Foci and SME Internationalization

The international business literature has mainly focused on the impact of top managers' psychological attributes on firms' strategic decisions. However, the potential moderating influence of industry conditions such as competition, has not been well explored. Deriving insights from the regulatory focus and upper echelons theories, this paper extends the international business and regulatory focus literature by investigating how the impact influence of CEOs' regulatory foci on firms' degree of internationalization depends on the intensity of competitive market conditions. Using primary data gathered from 289 small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Ghana, the findings of the study revealed when competition is intense in the domestic market, the potency of a CEO's promotion focus as a driver of internationalization is amplified. In addition, the research shows that intense domestic market competition weakens the negative influence of a CEO's prevention focus on a firm's degree of internationalization. These findings have important research and managerial implications for international business.     

Governance structure and internationalization of family-controlled firms: The mediating role of international entrepreneurial orientation

Stemming from resource dependence theory this article investigates the mediating role of international entrepreneurial orientation on the relationship between the involvement of non-family members in the firms' governance structure and both pace of internationalization and international performance of family firms. Relying on a sample of 113 German family firms, the theoretical model proposed in the study is tested via structural equation modeling techniques. Our findings suggest that a high involvement of non-family members in governance structure has a positive impact on family firms' pace of internationalization, and that this relationship is mediated by the international entrepreneurial orientation of the firm. The discussion section offers implications for family business and international entrepreneurship literature, as well as practical implications.     

The role of networks in early internationalizing firms: A systematic review and future research agenda

Despite considerable research, the international entrepreneurship (IE) literature lacks systematic knowledge of how early internationalizers use networks to overcome their resource deficits in different phases of internationalization. Further, a systematic guide for future research to expand the current knowledge of early internationalizers' network dynamics throughout their internationalization process is missing to date. To fill these voids, the present paper conducts a systematic review of sixty-one journal articles on the role of networks in the cross-border expansion of early internationalizing companies. We contribute to existing research by taking stock of the current state of knowledge regarding the role of networks in early internationalizing firms in different faces of internationalization. We also use the findings obtained from our review as a platform to systematically identify opportunities for future research regarding early internationalizers’ network dynamics throughout the internationalization process.     

Heuristics in international business: A systematic literature review and directions for future research

This paper aims at depicting the status of research on heuristics in the international business domain to understand the main topic areas in which heuristics are addressed and delve into the types of heuristics used by managers and entrepreneurs when dealing with international business activities. These are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty, drawing attention on the adoption of heuristics for decision-making. To this aim, the paper systematically reviews studies published in top-ranked international business journals between 1997 and 2018. The systematic literature review shows that the main research areas in which heuristics are developed concern foreign market entry, post-entry international expansion, foreign market selection, and international entrepreneurship. The paper also discusses the type of heuristics that are utilized by decision-makers when dealing with the uncertainty related to the internationalization process. The results of this study show that the international business literature develops the concept of heuristics in very various ways, tending to develop a plurality of approaches, without recurring or dominant forms. It is, however, possible to identify the types of heuristics and heuristically-based decisions, and a significant subset of the analyzed studies show a positive view on their effectiveness in the uncertainty of internationalization processes.     

整合能力与企业绩效：商业模式创新的中介作用

经济全球化的背景下,企业为了构建竞争优势,获取更好的绩效,开始利用整合能力和商业模式创新应对多变的外部环境。然而,当前研究对于两者之间存在何种联系的认识是模糊的。针对理论研究的缺陷,基于动态能力的理论视角,通过分析商业模式创新对整合能力与企业绩效的中介作用,揭示企业整合能力和商业模式创新促进企业绩效提高的内在机制,采用中国6省1市319个企业样本数据,运用线性回归的统计方法对理论假设进行实证检验。研究结果表明,整合能力和商业模式创新都对企业绩效具有正向的促进作用,同时整合能力与企业绩效之间存在着一定的中间机制。整合能力通过提高组织变革和价值创造效率两个方面促进商业模式创新,而商业模式创新作为中间纽带将整合能力与企业绩效联系起来。企业的整合能力越高,越有利于开展商业模式创新,进而促进企业绩效的提高。研究揭示了整合能力和商业模式创新共同促进企业绩效提高的内在理论机制,打开了能力与绩效间关系的“黑箱”,对于中国企业开展商业模式创新具有重要的实践指导意义。     

Institutional voids and firms' resource commitment in emerging markets: A review and future research agenda

The impact of institutional environments on firms' strategic decisions has been examined in strategy and international business literature. Yet, the current state of knowledge about how institutional voids affect firms' resource commitment in emerging markets is equivocal. This paper reviews and develops an integrative framework that maps the key conceptualizations, theoretical frames, mechanisms, contingencies and outcomes in the institutional voids – resource commitment literature. Altogether, this paper structures institutional voids and resource commitment research into salient themes to help scholars scope the field and explore value-adding avenues to further our understanding of internationalization and resource commitment decisions in emerging markets.     

Linking Dynamic Absorptive Capacity and Service Innovation for Born Global Service Firms: An Organization Innovation Lens Perspective

Grounded in the dynamic capabilities approach and organizational sub-system view on internationalization, this quantitative study develops and empirically tests a model of international market performance of born global service firms. While several scholars highlighted innovativeness as a driver of competitiveness for born global firms, the capacities underlying the born global firm's innovativeness have received limited scholarly attention, specifically, dynamic absorptive capacities (exploratory, transformative, and exploitative learning capacities). The uniqueness of this paper posits that dynamic absorptive capacities in a born global service firm have contributed to innovation and resulted in international market outcomes. The data was collected using the survey method from born global service firms and was analyzed using structured equation modeling. The findings of this study reveal that service innovation and business strategy are critical drivers of international performance for born global service firms. The paper contributes to the literature on the significance of absorptive capacity in born global service firms by identifying those dynamic absorptive capacities that operate in a composite set of relationships with other capabilities and significantly contribute to their innovation, impacting their internationalization outcomes. This study also supplements the theoretical and practical implications derived from the key findings of this study and provides future research directions.     

Reflections on grounding firm innovation and viability

Entrepreneurial activity unfolds in a dynamic environment that challenges business viability. We utilize grounded theory as a novel type of reflection to explain and interpret whether and how innovation can afford survival benefits to firms. The premise is the application of a methodological approach with reflexive properties to advance scientific rigor in “reflections.” The idea underlying our reflection was to use innovation as the point of departure, review the literature, conceptualize ideas, and finally link the concepts that emerged as components of a framework. Our view of the firm resembles a viable entity that changes, constantly striving to meet and balance internal potentials and external complexities, while innovation per se involves change that is made possible by entrepreneurship. We bring together our personal and professional backgrounds and implement the European scholarly tradition on innovation and Viable Systems approach to scrutinize innovation’s interactions and relations. We linked boundary conditions, opportunities, and complementary assets to innovation. Effectively, our analysis conceptualizes innovation as autopoiesis in entrepreneurship and demonstrates its central role as the vehicle to exploit changes that ensure firm viability.     

The dark side of business model innovation

Existing literature has tended to focus on the positive benefits and outcomes of business model innovation (BMI), despite emerging evidence that BMI can also have a dark side, with negative consequences. We systematically review the existing BMI literature, articulating it around three clusters of negative consequences: those affecting the firm as an entity; those affecting the firm's stakeholders; and those that are specific or context-dependent. In a similar fashion, we identify the driving factors and circumstances leading to these negative consequences and group them into four clusters: (1) managerial choices and processes, and three underpinning circumstances that influence such choices or processes; (2) trade-offs between the new and current business models; (3) managers’ ability to manage BMI; and (4) context within which BMI is situated. The paper provides the first attempt to gather prior research on the phenomenon and thereby develop a conceptual understanding of the dark side of BMI. Furthermore, by proposing a model that explains how the dark side of BMI may occur, we inform ongoing debates on the theorization of the consequences that may derive from BMI and how these can be managed to support firms’ innovative growth, arguing how the disruptive innovation literature can only partially explain the phenomenon. Second, our model provides important foundations to further distil the complex link between BMI and performance. Finally, we suggest a number of future research avenues, accounting for different dimensions of the phenomenon.     

商业模式创新的机理分析:一个系统思考框架

在文献研究的基础上,构建起一个商业模式创新机理的二维分析框架,认为商业模式创新包括企业战略分析、创新要素利用、收入模式设计三大模块。基于该判断,采用多案例研究方法分析了4种企业商业模式的创新实践。基于系统思考的研究表明,投资模式是保证企业商业模式持续创新的重要因素,是连接收入模式与企业战略、创新要素的重要纽带;内化于创新活动之间的因果联结机制是商业模式创新的内在机理,初始创新活动则是商业模式创新的触发动因。     

Global innovation performance: Strategic challenges for multinational corporations

In the emerging knowledge economy many companies are forced to access globally dispersed technological and market knowledge to maintain their competitive advantage. A conceptual model is presented to analyze the relationship between the globalization of the innovation function and firm performance. Longitudinal data from 10 multinational companies are used to support the proposed model. The analysis concludes that the relationship between global innovation reach and firm performance is concave and time lagged. The results suggest the strategic importance of globalization decisions. The managerial implications are structured in five distinctive strategic challenges to successfully manage global innovation.     

Diaspora Ownership and Homeland Firms' Internationalization

Although the contribution of diaspora to international business is becoming more evident, little is known about the channels used by individual firms to benefit from diaspora. In this paper, we propose equity ownership as a form of connection between the homeland firms and diasporans (i.e. diaspora members). Specifically, we draw on the literature on diaspora combined with an owners-as-resources perspective to theorize about how diaspora owners can affect the homeland firm's internationalization. We suggest that the anticipated entry costs deriving from the liability of foreignness faced by homeland firms explain how the impact of diaspora owners varies depending on entry mode. Finally, we compare diaspora owners to other types of foreign owner which we argue have lower levels of motivation and ability to help homeland firms to internationalize, and contribute relatively less to their internationalization than diaspora owners. We test and confirm our predictions using data on 2608 domestically controlled Indian firms and their internationalization in 2006–2012.     

家族企业跨代资源整合与组合创业

跨代创业是家族企业传承和永续经营的核心问题,涉及到两代企业家之间的资源整合和传承创新.现有研究大多关注家族企业的独特资源对创业的影响,但忽视了家族企业资源在代际之间形成的异质性结构及其在传承过程中的动态变化,二代涉入带来的资源异质性及其与一代资源之间的整合是组合创业的资源基础,也是推动跨代创业的动力.本文从资源基础观的角度出发,探究家族跨代资源异质性及其整合对家族企业创业行为的影响.基于1999年-2012年中国上市家族企业的数据进行回归分析,结果显示:家族二代异质性的知识资源对家族企业组合创业有显著的促进作用,而家族一代社会资本与二代异质性资源的整合也会正向影响家族企业的组合创业行为.分析结果还表明,地区市场化水平会负向调节知识资源异质性与家族企业组合创业的关系.本文结论对资源观在家族企业研究中的应用以及转型经济背景下的组合创业研究有重要贡献.     

Internationalization of Digital Innovations: A Rapidly Evolving Research Stream

This perspective paper synthesizes the burgeoning literature on internationalization of digital innovations to identify promising areas for future research. We first integrate multiple perspectives on digital innovations to offer a coherent and unified definition of digital innovations. Next, we synthesize digital innovation research into a theoretical framework that discusses the interrelationship between digital innovations and international business environment and its implications for international penetration of digital innovations. Our synthesis of literature highlights the increased research focus on demand-side perspective as an appropriate theoretical framework to explain the unique dynamics of digital internationalization. Finally, we take account of recent trends in digital economy as well as important gaps in current literature to propose promising avenues for future research. We particularly emphasize the need to integrate current institutional transitions of a digital era as well as emerging theoretical perspectives such as demand-side perspective and opportunity logic in digital internationalization research. We hope our perspective paper will contribute toward a more systematic and theoretically grounded advancement of digital internationalization research.     

Outsourcing to emerging markets: Theoretical perspectives and policy implications

Creating value through outsourcing has emerged as a popular competitive strategy for firms in various industries. In order to survive in the domestic and international marketplaces, firms, especially in developed countries, are seeking opportunities offshore, which is one focus of globalization. Offshore outsourcing has emerged as a popular competitive strategy and emerging markets have become increasingly attractive locations. As firms in developed countries (e.g., the US) continue to face enormous challenges to sustain competitive advantage, outsourcing to emerging markets is becoming an increasingly important source of business renewal and corporate transformation.In spite of the growing strategic significance of sourcing, we have limited knowledge of offshoring and outsourcing to emerging markets. The objectives of this review are fourfold: (1) to provide a better understanding of the concepts of offshoring and outsourcing business models, (2) to discuss relevant theoretical perspectives related to outsourcing, (3) to present a taxonomy of outsourcing strategies drawing on the extant literature, and (4) to discuss public policy implications. Conclusions and direction for future research are provided.