Professional Self‐regulation in North America: The Cases of Law and Accounting

Professional and expert work holds the potential for misconduct that can harm clients or the public. According to the traditional model of professional self‐regulation, developed during the “golden age” of the professions in the mid‐20th century, societies grant professional communities freedom from external regulation in return for their commitment to regulate their members' conduct. Professions were said to cultivate distinctive ethical norms, socialize new practitioners, and engage in social control of deviant behavior. In light of dramatic changes in the professional world since that time, this essay reviews research on the legal and accounting professions in North America to assess the extent to which this traditional model still holds. The two professions continue to resemble the traditional model in some respects but diverge from it in others, and on some points, there is insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion. The traditional model of self‐regulation is probably best viewed as an ideal type that can serve as a standard of reference, not as an accurate representation of social reality. This conclusion opens up new topics for research and opportunities to inform policy.     

Quality of Parenting as Mediator of the Effect of Childhood Defiance on Adolescent Friendship Choices and Delinquency: A Growth Curve Analysis

Social scientists agree that childhood antisocial behavior portends adolescent delinquency, but there is little agreement regarding the theoretical processes that account for this behavioral continuity. Latent growth curve modeling was used to test latent trait and social influence explanations for this association. The analyses used data collected annually over a 4‐year period from a sample of 149 boys, 157 girls, and their parents. Contrary to latent trait theories, we found no direct association between oppositional/defiant behavior during childhood and a trajectory of increasing involvement with deviant peers and delinquency during adolescence. Rather, early oppositional/defiant behavior undermined effective parenting practices. The latter, in turn, predicted an increasing affiliation with deviant peers and delinquency during adolescence. Improvements in parenting during adolescence decreased delinquency indirectly by reducing affiliation with deviant peers. Overall, the results support a life course development model in which difficult behavior during childhood increases the probability of adolescent deviant behavior because of its disruptive effect on quality of parenting.     

Issues in the Study of Deviance*

Several issues in the study of deviance are discussed: the definition of deviance; the significance of the deviant act; cultural relativism; the influence of social structures and causation. By using departures from rules to define deviance, sociologists may repeat fallacies of formalistic jurisprudence. Deviance is best left undefined, and preferably delimited ontologically in terms of middle range theory. Spector and Kitsuse's revisionist theory is judged insufficient for macro-analysis of deviance because they fail to reconcile the influence of objective and subjective factors. Cottrell's choice and feedback model is advocated as a means to study the dynamic process wherein values are aggregated in the social definition of deviance. The problem of bringing objective factors into this analysis is solved by showing how changing costs alter the order in which values are satisfied and thus change the overt pattern of societal reaction.     

Shame, Embarrassment, and Formal Sanction Threats: Extending the Deterrence/Rational Choice Model to Academic Dishonesty

Following the lead of Grasmick and Bursik (1990), we propose that significant others and conscience both function as agents of social control to deter illicit behavior in a manner similar to that provided by the law and more formal, bureaucratic organizations. All three–conscience, significant others, and formal organizations–entail potential threats and costs (i.e., shame, embarrassment, and formal sanctions). Actors consider these potential threats and costs, and assess the certainty and severity of them, in deciding whether or not to engage in criminal or deviant behavior. In the research reported here, data from a sample of undergraduate students are employed to examine the effects of perceived certainty and severity of shame, embarrassment, and formal sanction threats of the self-reported prevalence of involvement in a variety of forms of academic dishonesty. The results suggest rather limited support for the deterrence/rational choice model, nearly all of which is due to the influence of conscience (shame).     

Examining college students’ differential deviance: A partial test of social structure-social learning theory

College students are engaged in a variety of activities on campus, some of which are deviant and may be criminal. This research investigated 12 activities prohibited on many college campuses (for example, smoking, meeting in an unreserved room, and removing school property without permission). Negative binomial regressions were used to analyze a count of engagement in the deviant activities and logistic regressions were used to separately analyze the three most common behaviors found in the sample—non-permitted parking, alcohol consumption, and making a false excuse. The findings show moderate support for the general (using the count variable) and the specific (using the three dichotomized variables) predictability of unofficial and official sanctions as a proxy measures of Sherman’s defiance theory and the four constructs of Akers’ social learning theory. The inconsistencies among which variables were significant and which had the strongest effect are discussed, along with a mediation analysis.     

Social Control and Delinquent Behavior: An Examination of the Elements of the Social Bond

This research examines the overall and relative effects of the elements of Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory on four separate measures of deviance using data drawn from a sample of 3065 adolescents. The magnitude and direction of the observed relationships moderately support the theory for all four deviant behavior scales; the elements of the bond are more predictive of the less serious forms of deviance than they are of the more serious forms. The element of commitment is more strongly related to deviant behavior than either the element of belief or attachment. A comparison of the theory for males and females demonstrates that the overall model consistently explains more variation in the dependent variables for females than it does for males. The commitment and belief variables are more strongly related to deviant behavior for females than for males while attachment is more important for males. These findings are discussed in relation to the overall viability of social bonding theory.     

Deviant social positions in small groups: The relation between role and individual

This paper studies a deviant social position within a small group of Italian Fishermen. The role of “court-jester” emerges and, as the title suggests, the relation between this role and the inherent properties of the deviant are explored. It is argued that the emergence of roles among deviant social positions is dependent upon the personal attributes of the deviant and the characteristics of his relations to other members of the group.     

Understanding workplace deviant behavior in nonprofit organizations

Workplace deviant behavior has traditionally been studied with respect to business or for‐profit organizations. In this article, we argue that nonprofit organizations also experience deviance, and due to their unique characteristics, they deserve special attention for extending the understanding of workplace deviant behavior to other types of organizations. Based on a review of the literature on deviance, we develop a general model of workplace deviance that we apply to nonprofit organizations. Based on the integrative conceptual framework, we advance relevant propositions for understanding and explaining deviance in nonprofit organizations.     

THE PROFESSIONAL EX-:

Research on persons exiting deviance has centered on identifying the processes where-by they abandon the behaviors, ideologies, and identities associated with their specific career by replacing them with more conventional lifestyles and identities. This study suggests that relinquishing the behaviors and lifestyles associated with a particular deviant career does not always imply total abandonment of a deviant identity. The central tenets of Ebaugh's (1988) model of role exit are applied and adapted to provide an alternative conceptualization of exiting deviance. Drawing on data gathered through introspection and open-end interviews with 35 professional ex-s currently employed in a variety of community, state, and private institutions providing treatment to individuals with drug, alcohol, and/or eating disorder problems, four central stages of this specific exit process are explicated: emulation of one's personal therapist, the call to a career in counseling, status-set realignment, and credentialization. Preliminary analysis suggests that professionalizing rather than abandoning a deviant identity facilitates exiting deviance.     

Rhetoric in the economy: consumption and audience

Consumption is rhetorical. The argument is based on an analogy between discourse in economics and the actual economy. Any chosen bundle of consumption makes a statement. The understanding of the statement requires a rhetorical inquiry into the speaker, audience, and speech situation (e.g., history, language). To understand consumption behavior, I propose to shift attention away from the logic of choice and focus instead on the rhetoric of choice (which includes the logic of choice as a part).     

The role of parenting and personal characteristics on deviant peer association among European American and Latino adolescents

This study examined both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting (positive and negative) and adolescents’ personal characteristics (religiosity, social initiative, aggression, depression) in relation to perceived deviant peer association for European American and Latino adolescents. Using structural equation modeling, adolescents’ reports of positive or negative mothering and fathering were found to be related to adolescents’ personal characteristics, and these characteristics were, in turn, related to perceived deviant peer association. Ethnic differences in means were found in both parenting and outcome variables, with European American adolescents reporting higher levels of positive parenting and social initiative, and lower levels of perceived deviant peer association than Latino adolescents. Despite these mean differences, no ethnic differences were found in the overall measurement or structural model, suggesting that this process functions similarly for these two ethnic groups.     

FOCUSING THE SEARCH FOR GIFFEN BEHAVIOR

A recent paper by Otis Gilley and Gordon Karels showed that Giffen behavior can result from a rationing constraint which provides a second, lower bound to consumption. This model provides a far wider set of possibilities for uncovering Giffen behavior empirically than simply among the poor with limited consumption choices among a few staple items. Giffen behavior of this type can equally well result from the interaction of two binding upper constraints to the consumer's choice set. This is demonstrated with a consumer who experiences local satiation, the antithesis of the usual setting where Giffen goods are thought possible.     

TELEWORK: URBAN FORM,ENERGY CONSUMPTION,AND GREENHOUSE GAS IMPLICATIONS

A primary motivation of telework policy is to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Using a numerical simulation of the standard urban model, we show telework causes sprawl, calling into question the idea that telework decreases energy consumption. Overall effects depend on wage changes due to telework, land‐use regulation such as height limits or greenbelts, and the telework participation rate. While energy consumption increases in some scenarios, emissions may fall due to changes in the energy mix between gasoline and other sources. (JEL R11, R28, C60)     

农民工“临时夫妻”越轨行为的发生机制与成因

以默顿的越轨理论为研究视角,从对社会文化目标的期待和实现文化目标制度性手段的缺失两个维度分析,可揭示农民工组成"临时夫妻"越轨行为的发生机制与成因。研究发现,制度化手段的缺失与社会规范的弱化与农民工越轨行为的发生存在显著的相关性。因此,社会应该加强对于农民工的教育和引导,建立更加多元的社会文化目标,并鼓励农民工通过制度化的手段实现社会目标,并达到两者平衡的状态,这对防止农民工发生"临时夫妻"的越轨行为具有重要意义。     

The rationalization process of online game cheating behaviors

Online deviant behaviors have been prevalent since the Internet became ubiquitous, but research in this field is relatively scarce. The present study investigates a unique deviant behavior in online video gaming communities – game cheating – to further understand the scope of online deviant social behaviors. This paper aims to uncover how game players actively create and negotiate new meanings of game cheating in online games. Six focus groups were conducted to explore the rationalization process for engaging in game cheating among players of different online video games. It was discovered that elements of intentionality, utility, core gaming goals, evolving gaming norm, and social ties to gaming communities serve as important rationalizing process to justify game cheating behaviors. Through the discovery of these mental schemas for online game cheating, the paper discusses how online deviant behaviors are connected with social life online and form a unique online culture.     

Sociological Perspectives on Addiction

This article provides a critical survey of sociological research on addiction. It begins with the seminal research of Alfred Lindesmith on heroin addiction then proceeds through discussions of functionalist contributions, research that exemplifies what David Matza called the ‘appreciative’ turn in the sociology of deviance, rational choice theories, and social constructionist approaches. It is confined to research on addiction in its original meaning as putative enslavement to a substance or activity rather than merely deviant or disapproved activity more broadly. As will be seen, though, there is a ubiquitous and theoretically interesting tendency even among those who contend to be writing about addiction as such to slip into modes of analysis that effectively substitute questions regarding the social approval of an activity for questions concerning whether it is voluntary or involuntary. Hence, one purpose of this article is to explore whether, and how, this slippage might be avoided.     

UNTIMELY ACTS

Interactionists and labelling theorists have made actors central to a jointly constructed process of deviance. This article extends their arguments to the deviant act itself and suggests how uses and conceptions of time and temporality distinguish deviant acts from routine or other unconventional acts. It treats time systematically in relation to designations of deviance by, first, correlating timing with temporal structures; second, comparing and contrasting deviant acts with untoward and anomalous acts; third, discussing nine temporal dimensions involved in the construction of deviant acts by illustrating how diagnosticians identify problematic drinking; fourth, elaborating the use of these dimensions to deviance in general and to issues of legal and "universal wrongs" which imply a negotiated moral order in modern society.     

A Self-Consistency Approach to Prisonization*

A theoretical model is developed in which prisonization is determined by the self-concepts which inmates bring to the prison. This model was substantively tested using a Likert-type scale of Inmate Reference Group Identification as an index of prisonization. Self-concept was measured by the Twenty Statements Test and scores were trichotomized to form groups having legitimate, low and deviant social anchorage. The sample consisted of 257 male inmates from two adult prisons. The data were gathered by questionnaire in groups of 15–45 using a cross-sectional design. Four hypotheses were tested relating prisonization to type of social anchorage according to three institutional career phases. Using analysis of variance and contrasts it was found that prisonization was the greatest and increased in a linear fashion during successive career phases among those with deviant social anchorage. Those with low social anchorage showed an increase in prisonization during the middle phase and a decrease during the late phase. No change in prisonization according to career phase was found among those with legitimate social anchorage. The results suggest that self-concept plays a crucial role in defining both the likelihood and form of attitude change following imprisonment.     

Parents and Peers in Relation to Early Adolescent Problem Behavior

Concurrent and prospective associations between parent‐youth dyadic hostility and adolescent externalizing and internalizing problem behavior were examined in a sample of 416 families. Parenting control, parents’ well‐being, and youths’ affiliation with deviant peers were included as integral covariates. Information from multiple sources was analyzed using structural equation modeling. Concurrently, youth externalizing problems were associated with dyadic hostility, deviant peers, inadequate parenting control, and fathers’ well‐being (inversely). Internalizing problems were associated with inadequate parenting control and lower levels of fathers’ well‐being. Prospectively, some of these relations continued over 2 years, with a few new associations emerging. A process model is proposed in which parent‐youth dyadic hostility during early adolescence influences parenting, peer relations, and parents’ well‐being over time.     

Resilience and Deviant Behavior Among Institutionalized Adolescents: The Relationship with Significant Adults

The transition to institutional care often implies the separation from a dysfunctional environment, marked by neglect, abandonment and lack of emotional responsiveness, which makes youth more vulnerable to the development of deviant behavior. The quality of the relationship established with significant figures within the institution as well as with teachers is suggested as a protective factor for the development of resilience and the detachment from deviant behaviour. The present study aims to test the predictive effect of the quality of relationship to institutional caregivers and teachers on the development of resilience and deviant behaviour in institutionalized adolescents. We also intend to test the mediating effect of resilience in the previous association. The sample was composed by 202 institutionalized adolescents, 12–18 aged (M = 14.96, SD = 1.80), and from both genders. Data were collected using self-report questionnaires. The results demonstrated that the quality of relationship with significant figures was positively associated with resilience and may play an important role in preventing deviant behaviour. There was also a total mediation effect of resilience on the association between quality of relationship with significant figures and development of deviant behaviour. The results suggest that the affective reorganization of institutionalized adolescents can be promoted by the establishment of safe havens, which reflect feelings of belonging and acceptance, facilitating a more adaptive experience.