Examining the impact of gender, race/ethnicity, and family factors on mental health issues in a sample of court-involved youth

Faced with anywhere between one half and two thirds of its youth having a diagnosable mental illness, the identification and treatment of mental health concerns is a critically important endeavor for professionals working with youth who have contact with the juvenile justice system. In addition, the literature suggests that factors related to both the family and to the gender of the adolescent must be incorporated into any approach to assessment and intervention within this special population. Further, prior work that has documented the interaction of gender and family issues with adolescent race/ethnicity warrants further empirical attention, as does the intermediary role that the family may play in the development of both internalizing and externalizing behaviors. The present study extends this literature by examining factors related to gender, race/ethnicity, family factors, and mental health issues in a sample of 2,549 Caucasian and African American youth coming to the attention of juvenile courts. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated significant main effects for gender and race/ethnicity, as well as a significant gender x race/ethnicity interaction for the family and externalizing variables. A multiple group structural equation modeling procedure was employed in order to test the hypothesis that family environment mediates the relationship between gender and mental health problems, as well as to test for potential differences in these relationships as a function of race/ethnicity. Results indicated support for the mediation model in the sample of African American youth but not in the sample of Caucasian youth.     

Bridging the Border between Work and Family: The Effects of Supervisor‐Employee Similarity*

We examine the relationship between supervisor‐employee race/ethnicity, gender, and caregiving similarity and employees’ perceptions that supervisors provide support for bridging the border between work and family life. Employees report greater net perceived supervisor interactional support, but not instrumental support, when the immediate supervisor is the same race/ethnicity or the same gender as the employee, but not when they have similar caregiving responsibilities. Having a supervisor of the same gender is more salient for women and race/ethnic similarity is more salient for men. We also find patterns of difference in the relative salience of gender and race/ethnic similarity within race/ethnic/gender groups.     

Putting youth violent victimization into context: sex, race/ethnicity, and community differences among a multisite sample of youths

The increased risk of violent victimization for adolescents relative to other age groups has recently become a major public health concern. The current study uses data from a multisite study of eighth grade youths attending public schools in 11 cities to determine the extent and nature of youth general and serious violent victimization among both sexes and five racial/ethnic groups in 11 diverse communities. This study explores differences in sex, race/ethnicity, and community independently and explores interactions between sex and community and race/ethnicity and community. Our findings suggest important differences in victimization prevalence and individual victimization rates by sex and community of residence. Racial differences were found to be closely tied to community. Policy implications resulting from our findings are discussed.     

Routine inequality: violent victimization at the intersection of race and ethnicity among females

Criminological research has clearly demonstrated that the risk of violent victimization varies across gender. More complex are the differences across race and ethnicity within gender groups. Past studies have established that victimization rates among Black females exceed those of White and Latina females. Although this pattern has been established, the reason for these differences between females must continue to be explored. We draw on situational and contextual features of routine activities and lifestyle theories to examine their use in accounting for these variations across race and ethnicity among females. The results indicate that the divergent impact of routine activities and lifestyle measures on females' risks for violent victimization. For example, some situational (e.g., riding public transportation) and contextual (e.g., residential stability) measures increased the risks of violent victimization among females of color but decreased among White females. The implications of these findings and areas of consideration for further research are discussed.     

Ethnicity or race,area characteristics,and sexual partner choice among American adolescents

The aim of this paper is to examine the association of individual demographic variables and area characteristics with the characteristics of sexual partners of American adolescents. Data for the study were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The data indicate that the community characteristics of ethnic or racial composition of the population and region were most strongly related to the ethnicity or race of the partner. Regional differences in the ethnicity or race of partners were significant even after controlling for the ethnic or racial composition of the community. Differences in partner's age, grade, neighborhood, and school or residence were not related to school and community characteristics. In addition, the individual characteristics of age, gender, and race or ethnicity were also related to ethnicity or race of partner.     

Ethnicity or race,area characteristics,and sexual partner choice among American adolescents

The aim of this paper is to examine the association of individual demographic variables and area characteristics with the characteristics of sexual partners of American adolescents. Data for the study were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The data indicate that the community characteristics of ethnic or racial composition of the population and region were most strongly related to the ethnicity or race of the partner. Regional differences in the ethnicity or race of partners were significant even after controlling for the ethnic or racial composition of the community. Differences in partner s age, grade, neighborhood, and school or residence were not related to school and community characteristics. In addition, the individual characteristics of age, gender, and race or ethnicity were also related to ethnicity or race of partner.     

Grandfather caregivers: race and ethnic differences in poverty

We use data from the 2006 American Community Survey to examine race and ethnic differences in the effects of marital status and co-residence of the middle generation on the likelihood of poverty among grandfathers who have primary responsibility for co-resident grandchildren (N = 3,379). Logistic regression results indicate that race/ethnicity and household composition are significant predictors of poverty for grandfather caregivers: non-Hispanic white grandfathers, those who are married, and those with a co-resident middle generation are the least likely to be poor. The effects of race/ethnicity, marital status, and the presence of a middle generation are, however, contingent upon one another. Specifically, the negative effect of being married is lower among grandfathers who are Hispanic, African American, non-Hispanic, and non-Hispanics of other race/ethnic groups compared to whites. In addition, having a middle generation in the home has a larger negative effect on poverty for race/ethnic minority grandfathers than for non-Hispanic whites. Finally, the combined effects of marriage and a middle generation vary across race/ethnic group and are associated with lower chances of poverty among some groups compared with others. We use the theory of cumulative disadvantage to interpret these findings and suggest that race/ethnicity and household composition are synergistically related to economic resources for grandfather caregivers.     

THE ETHNIC, RACE, AND GENDER GAPS IN WORKPLACE AUTHORITY: Changes over Time in the United States

We analyze factors explaining differences in hierarchical authority between men and women within and across categories of race and ethnicity in two time periods, finding that the processes leading to authority within the workplace operate differently by gender than by race or ethnicity. The demand-side factor, percentage of women in an occupation, helps explain authority differences between men and women in most groups. Supply-side factors, and, in white–black comparisons, occupational location, contribute to differences by race and ethnicity within genders. In the later period, education is particularly important for Hispanic men reflecting, we believe, the recent surge in immigration rates.     

Everyday Race: Millennials,Generation Z,and the Census

The census is a central feature of U.S. governance, providing important information regarding the U.S. population used to determine legislative representation and the allocation of federal funding. The count also involves a measure of race and ethnicity, however the sociopolitical construction of race means census categories have shifted throughout history. Existing data highlight how current classifications do not fully capture the identities of different groups; however, less is known about the views of young adults. Utilizing interview and journal data wherein 84 college students from the Millennial and Generation Z cohorts were asked to reflect on the 2010 and 2020 census race questions, our findings reveal a major gap between census classification and everyday experiences with racial categorization. Our study provides meaningful insights into how young adults think about the census race and ethnicity categories, with implications for future research and census collection.     

Race,Marginalization, and Perceptions of Stress Among Workers Worldwide Post-2020

Research shows that stressful workplace changes in 2020 disproportionately impacted historically marginalized workers. However, we need more information on enduring inequalities of stress post-2020. Thus, drawing from surveys with employees working in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and India (N = 5,242), we use logistic regression to explore how worker identities (race/ethnicity, gender, sexual identity, and social class) might matter for stress as measured through respondents' self-assessments of their own feelings of stress (“helplessness”) and states counter to stress (“self-efficacy”). Taking a sociological approach to analyze worker responses to the perceived stress scale (PSS-10), we found that historically marginalized workers (in terms of race, gender, sexual identity, and social class) reported greater feelings of stress (helplessness). However, we also found that employees identifying as racially minoritized at work and employees in India reported high self-efficacy scores on the PSS-10—a surprising relationship given that feelings of self-efficacy have been previously theorized to have an inverse relationship with stress (helplessness). Though based on a convenience sample, our research suggests that historically marginalized workers worldwide are feeling more significant amounts of stress. In addition, our findings may have implications regarding how researchers use the PSS-10 to measure stress across diverse worker groups and international contexts.     

Parental Influence on Adolescent Cigarette,Alcohol and Marijuana Use: A Focus on Race/Ethnicity and Age

This study examined the racial/ethnic differences in the influence of perceived parental attitudes on adolescent cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use. The 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) was used and included African American, Hispanic, non-Hispanic White, and other race youth (N?=?13,600), aged 12–17. We tested the direct and moderating effects of perceived parental attitudes by race/ethnicity and age on adolescent substance use. Results show that perceived parental disapproval decreased cigarette and alcohol use among older adolescents. Perceived parental disapproval also varied by race/ethnicity and the type of substance used in that non-Hispanic White adolescents were more influenced by perceived parental disapproval for cigarette use, and perceived parental disapproval influenced Hispanic adolescents’ use for all three substances. African American adolescents were less influenced by perceived parental disapproval for all three substances. We also examined perceived harm in substance use and found that only 22.5% of the sample perceived the use of marijuana as harmful compared to cigarette and alcohol use (66 and 62.1%, respectively). Implications for preventive and intervention measures are discussed.     

School performance, academic aspirations, and drug use among children and adolescents

The relationship between drug use, school performance, and academic aspirations among 446 Anglo and Hispanic youths, age nine to seventeen, is explored. Two groups of subjects--current substance users and non-users--were interviewed. Subjects in each comparison group were similar in age, ethnicity, and gender. Overall results, consistent with prior research, indicate a significant relationship between current school performance, future educational aspirations, and drug use. No difference was noted between substance use groups on indicators of general interest in school work or probability of dropping out of school. Important differences in response patterns occurring with age, ethnicity, and gender were found.     

Condom Negotiation Strategy Use and Effectiveness among College Students

College students may engage in risky sexual behaviors, such as inconsistent condom use, which increase their risk of sexually transmitted infections. This study examined the association between six condom influence strategies (CIS) and reported condom use among a diverse group of college students. Differences in CIS and condom use were examined by gender, race or ethnicity, and relationship status (casual, monogamous, or no current relationship). The study also used a cluster analysis to investigate how the CIS were used relative to one another, and how patterns of CIS use were related to condom use. Results showed interesting differences in CIS use by gender, race or ethnicity, and relationship status. Four patterns of CIS usage emerged, and results suggested that using all CIS frequently and using more assertive CIS may be particularly important for increased condom use. Men reported more condom use than women overall, but results indicated that using CIS were especially vital for increasing condom use for women. Surprisingly, there were no differences in condom use found for race or ethnicity and relationship type. Programs aimed at increasing students' condom use could benefit from promoting and practicing CIS, and recognizing potential differences among demographic groups.     

Condom negotiation strategy use and effectiveness among college students

College students may engage in risky sexual behaviors, such as inconsistent condom use, which increase their risk of sexually transmitted infections. This study examined the association between six condom influence strategies (CIS) and reported condom use among a diverse group of college students. Differences in CIS and condom use were examined by gender, race or ethnicity, and relationship status (casual, monogamous, or no current relationship). The study also used a cluster analysis to investigate how the CIS were used relative to one another, and how patterns of CIS use were related to condom use. Results showed interesting differences in CIS use by gender, race or ethnicity, and relationship status. Four patterns of CIS usage emerged, and results suggested that using all CIS frequently and using more assertive CIS may be particularly important for increased condom use. Men reported more condom use than women overall, but results indicated that using CIS were especially vital for increasing condom use for women. Surprisingly, there were no differences in condom use found for race or ethnicity and relationship type. Programs aimed at increasing students' condom use could benefit from promoting and practicing CIS, and recognizing potential differences among demographic groups.     

Analyzing Cultural Models in Adolescent Accounts of Romantic Relationships

Research on academic achievement has led the way in demonstrating how culturally constructed meanings shape adolescent scholastic behavior. The aim of this research is to move this standpoint of analysis more centrally into the area of adolescent dating and sexuality by focusing on the cultural components of adolescent romantic relationships. This study examines cultural models of romantic relationships in Vernacular Term Interviews of 68 African American and 59 Mexican American 11th‐ and 12th‐grade female and male high school students. A subset of interviews was analyzed first qualitatively to identify the models. The models then were committed to a manual and 4 analytic coders established reliability before coding all interviews blind as to race/ethnicity and gender of the adolescent. The resultant data were summarized by a principal components analysis that yielded 5 interpretable factors. Factor scores were computed and compared for gender and race/ethnicity differences. The results demonstrated clear differences in factors by race/ethnicity but not by gender. Results are discussed in relation to cultural differences described in the literature for these 2 populations.     

Parenthood, Childlessness, and Well-Being: A Life Course Perspective

This article reviews recent research (1999 - 2009) on the effects of parenthood on wellbeing. We use a life course framework to consider how parenting and childlessness influence well-being throughout the adult life course. We place particular emphasis on social contexts and how the impact of parenthood on well-being depends on marital status, gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. We also consider how recent demographic shifts lead to new family arrangements that have implications for parenthood and well-being. These include stepparenting, parenting of grandchildren, and childlessness across the life course.     

Gangsters and wheelchairs: urban teachers’ perceptions of disability,race and gender

This investigation provides inquiry into Disability Critical Race Studies to analyze the intersecting attributes related to race, gender and disability. The application of Disability Critical Race Studies revealed the ways in which race/ethnicity and gender merge to erroneously typecast African-American men who are wheelchair users as reformed ‘gang bangers’ or ‘victims’ of neighborhood gun violence. This investigation examines urban pre-service teachers’ understandings of disability and underscores the challenging intersection of race, gender and disability within urban communities.     

Generational Peers and Alcohol Misuse

This study investigates the influence of generational peers on alcohol misuse among immigrant youth. We derive hypotheses from sociological theories of generations regarding race/ethnicity, gender, and immigrant generation and test these hypotheses using a measure that accounts for the proportion of peers within a given peer network that are of the same immigrant generation. Results show that generational ties decreased the odds of alcohol misuse for immigrants and that these effects depend partly on race/ethnicity and gender. We conclude that generational ties play a meaningful role in the health and well‐being of immigrant youth, and discuss possible future avenues for research on immigrant generational peers.     

Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice: Examining the Unique Mental Health Needs of Girls

This study investigated the prevalence of mental health problems among girls who are involved in child welfare or juvenile justice systems. The sample consisted of 1,193 girls ranging in age from 4 to 18, the majority (82.3%, n = 982) of which were older than age 12. Differences based on race/ethnicity and developmental age groups were examined. Consistent with other research, this study found that the mental health needs of girls involved in the child welfare or juvenile justice systems are several times higher than in the general population. Intervention approaches must be developed that take into consideration differences in gender, age, and racial and ethnic group.     

Race,Class, and Support for the Welfare State*

Two competing approaches to the study of African Americans—the race and class perspectives—have dominated attempts to explain their views on contemporary issues. To examine the race versus class debate, this study uses African Americans' views on government spending for five social welfare concerns: (1) improving and protecting the nation's health, (2) solving the problems of big cities, (3) halting rising crime rates, (4) dealing with drug addiction, and (5) improving the nation's education system. Data from the 1972–1990 General Social Surveys are used to compare middle-class blacks with both working-class blacks and whites and middle-class whites in terms of their support for government spending for those five social welfare issues. Examining group means, we found no significant difference between the two black classes but a significant difference between the black middle class and the white middle class on support for government spending in all areas except halting the rising crime rates (where there were no significant differences among the four groups). Similarly, using logistic regression analysis we found that race continued to have a significant effect on support for spending even after controlling for class, year, age, gender, education, income, and occupational prestige. In respect to social welfare spending, the results indicate support for the race, as opposed to the class, perspective; that is, race is better than class for predicting African American attitudes on government spending.