International social indicators: The OECD experience

One of the few efforts to develop an operational set of international social indicators is underway through the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. The paper describes the OECD plan and gives some preliminary appraisal of the completed first phase of the work, the definition of the elements of well-being for which specific indicators of change should be developed. Attention is directed to certain aspects of the overall strategy being pursued by OECD including its careful delimitation of scope to the one type of social indicators (herein termed well-being indicators) for which international agreement now appears possible although very difficult. A possible governmental strategy for development of more comprehensive social indicators in the longer term context is suggested.     

Developing indicators of environmental quality: The experience of the council on environmental quality

In the late 1960s there was great interest in the U.S. environmental field for duplicating the success economists had in developing statistical indicators. This article traces the history of the development of environmental indices at the Council on Environmental Quality from initial research aimed at preparing one or at best a few indices of environmental quality to the most recent effort which aims to organize indicators showing conditions and trends on a wide variety of environmental topics. The Council intends to distribute the findings periodically. The report may be viewed as a briefing book for policymakers. Criteria used in selecting and developing indicators —relevancy, selectivity, availability of data, changes over time, statistical quality, and scope of coverage — are discussed. A key purpose of this effort is to improve the quality of data available for making national environmental policies. Appendixes included are: (1) a bibliography of works dealing with the general problems of developing, using, and evaluating environmental indicators; (2) a selection of over 100 U.S. Federal periodical reponts on specific aspects of environmental conditions; and (3) a comprehensive framework for identifying topics and selecting meaningful and useful environmental indicators to be used as the report outline.     

Developing social indicators research on the military in American society

This paper suggest an organizing framework for developing social indicator research of the military and its relationship to larger society. Military activities are divided into seven categories which parallel civilian institutional sectors: (1) economy and labor force, (2) education, (3) crime and deviance, (4) science and technology, (5) health and health care, (6) population and family, and (7) politics and government. In each activity area each of the following three topics is discussed: (1) impacts of civilian social changes on the military, (2) patterns of internal military change, (3) impacts of changes in the military on civilian society. For each topic in each category we briefly review some relevant issues, classifying references by the topics and categories to which they relate.     

Measurement of poverty and equity: Some Asean social indicators experience

In ASEAN countries, improvements in measurements of poverty and equity can take several forms. First, some poverty lines should be officially adopted, e.g., a poverty threshold of $300 and a subsistence threshold of $150 (per capita per year, ‘Kravis’ dollars, mid-1970s). Second, target distributive groups should be identified and new indicators, such as a proposed index of ethnic imbalance in Malaysia, could be designed where needed. Third, quick-response well-being surveys, as in the social weather station experiment in the Philippines, could help in both the technical and the social understanding of the state of equity.     

The social meaning of social indicators

While new modes of data processing have provided reams of data, there has been relatively less effort in seeking to comprehend the social meaning of results of empirical work. A set of previously developed indicators of urban social structure is here examined for its link to theory, and to the social structure of the city itself. The original indicators (size, social class, racial composition and community maturity) were empirically derived. In this paper, each is taken in turn, and explored with respect to several possible social meanings. Size, for example, is considered to be itself an indicator, and an imperfect one, for system complexity; percent non-white is seen to be itself an indicator for a slowdown in the mobility process, or a slower social metabolism. These and other results are suggestions, with illustrations, but not conclusive support, from other than the original data. While it is hoped that the theoretical suggestions may themselves be of interest, it is also hoped that approach itself can indicate the fertility and usefulness of going back to theory once empirical measures have been developed.     

Social indicators for social planning: The case of Israel

Social planning (SP) is viewed as an organizing framework for guiding government intervention in social life. Social indicators (SI) can provide the informational basis for formulating policies, preparing social plans and evaluating the impact of government activities. Both SP and SI are only two links in a desired sequence of organized social action. But given the present state of the art, the urgency of social problems and the opportunity cost of waiting for further theoretical development-initial efforts should be directed at developing SI for SP. Israel's experience is presented as an example of:

1. The ideological and operational background to specific types of intervention of the state. Within this framework the question arises whether vagueness on the subject of SP can be regarded as the cause of casual and negligent treatment of social problems by government.
2. Specific areas that have been neglected, or that have not been given adequate attention, because of the lack of SI to assist in acquiring an overall understanding of societal changes.

These examples are used as a basis for suggesting some practical possibilities of developing SI and SP in Israel and elsewhere.     

The Philippine social indicators project

The Social Indicators Project of the Development Academy of the Philippines (1974) aimed to formulate a measurement system capable of objectively depicting periodic changes in national development. It identified the following as basic Philippine social concerns: (1) Health and Nutrition, (2) Learning, (3) Income and Consumption, (4) Employment, (5) Non-human Productive Resources, (6) Housing, Utilities, and the Environment, (7) Public Safety and Justice, (8) Political Values, and (9) Social Mobility. This list is unique in considering political welfare. A multi-disciplinary research team selected 30 major indicators pertinent to these concerns. Although the majority are already encompassed by the Philippine statistical system, certain new indicators were proposed, including disability due to illness, human capital created by schooling, net beneficial product, families below a food threshold, an index of housing adequacy, an air pollution index for Greater Manila, an index of perceived public safety, indices of political mobility and efficacy, and indices of occupational mobility and perceived social mobility. A survey of 1000 households was used to demonstrate the feasibility of gathering needed new primary data, particularly those attitudinal in nature. An analysis of time series showed that certain aspects of Philippine welfare have been notably improving, but that others have been worsening; the direction of national progress can only be ascertained by admitting value-judgments on the relative importance of the several components of welfare.     

The sociology of consumption: Deriving new social indicators

A new area of research is emerging from an integration of sociology and consumer research. It is called the ‘sociology of consumption’. To date, its applications have been most thoroughly spelled out for marketers and consumer researchers. This paper explores the relevance of the sociology of consumption for social indicators research. It begins by defining this new area of research, then it discusses how a society's consumption may be conceptualized and measured. It concludes with several examples of how the study of consumption can not only be used to characterize societies but to reveal their social processes as well.     

Applied social reporting: A social indicators system for West German Society

This paper presents a ‘system’, i.e. systematic compilation, of about 200 social indicators in 10 areas of life, for the Federal Republic of Germany, 1955–1975. The construction of this indicator system is explained and an abridged version is introduced that can be comprised into one master table. Next, an overall evaluation of welfare development in West Germany is given and four models for a time-sequence interpretation are discussed. Finally, the present effort is put in perspective, e.g. in regard of the OECD program and of recent quality-of-life survey research.     

Focal local indicators for social program evaluation

An important role for social indicators is in the evaluation of the impact of specific social programs. This requires (in the absence of randomized experiments) extended time-series of social indicators. Such series will usually only be available for administrative records (both public and private). It is in the national interest that these be made flexibly research-retrievable by local region, by frequent time interval, and in fine topical breakdown. The ability to report aggregate statistics retrieved for lists of persons adds still greater precision in program evaluation, and can be done with no loss of privacy and without any release of individual data. For this purpose, the use of uniform individual identification numbers add efficiency without increased risk to privacy.     

Some social indicators for multiple family housing

This research suggests some social indicator candidates for families housed in multiple-family environments. Objective, subjective, and behavioral data sets are all represented in the analysis. This range of social statistics and the utilization of appropriate statistical analysis are viewed as necessary conditions for generating social indicators rather than simply relying on arbitrarily selected social statistics and assume they are indicators. Analysis of 1253 interviews in 88 Alberta subsidized housing projects reveals that subjective data from the tenant category of housing variables rank highest in accounting for present levels of user satisfaction and are viewed therefore as reasonable social indicators with respect to that issue.     

Measuring rural development in Nigeria: The place of social indicators

The use of economic growth indicators for the purpose of measuring rural development has for a long time been in practice in Nigeria and in many other developing nations. The inadequacy of this measure in depicting development in the area of societal well-being has suggested that social indicators could be a more meaningful tool to monitor and evaluate the level and conditions of rural development. This paper highlights the information needs for, and problems of incorporating social indicators in the measurement of rural development in Nigeria. It is recognized that for social indicators to be a useful tool in a place such as rural Nigeria, they must reflect the sociocultural peculiarities and the life style of the country's rural population. The paper finally suggests an improvement of the quality of social statistics in rural Nigeria to enhance their functional values to planners and policy makers.     

On the use of social indicators for planning

A social indicator in the context of planning, which induces a course of social change, is not a mere ‘good statistic’. While its validity depends on the relation drawn among its constituent properties, its relevance would depend upon the sequential relations it can draw with the other variables concerned with the envisaged course of change. And its necessity and efficiency will be rated accordingly as it can epitomize the situation which all these variables depict. A properly constructed set of indicators, therefore, may not only suggest the planning measures which should be employed but also throw light on a better formulation of the targets, goals and even the objective of planning. These points are briefly discussed in this paper with illustrations from India.     

The potential of social indicators: Minimum conditions for impact at the national level as suggested by a study of the use of ‘social indicators’ 73

Empirical evidence is presented which suggests that the use of social indicators among upper level government officials in the United States is minimal at present. Further, the level of use is not likely to be increased by improved measurement procedures, aesthetically improved packaging, or more widespread dissemination of such information among persons who influence policy decisions. The power of such information can be expected to be no greater than that of ‘mere’ statistics unless deliberate effort is made to institutionalize the importance of social indicators into government operations in conjunction with policy planning, goal setting, and commitment to the use of indicators as a system of national evaluation of progress toward the achievement of societal objectives. Several recommendations are made to develop the potential of social indicators and to increase their creative and useful application in matters of public policy at the national level.