Rural ageing in the United States: Trends and contexts

This paper examines rural population ageing in the United States with a particular focus on the contrasting contexts in which older rural residents live. We compare the characteristics of the older population by rural versus urban residence, and explore challenges and opportunities associated with the ageing of rural baby boomers. The United States is a vast territory, and rural areas in the US are diverse regionally, in poverty and income, principal forms of employment, proximity to metropolitan areas, population size, density and composition, the history of change in these parameters, and a number of other factors that affect the ageing process. Hence, the diversity across rural areas is an important consideration in what affects the well being of rural elderly individuals, as well as the community-level impacts of rural ageing. Further, the characteristics of the older rural population help shape community and rural development outcomes for diverse rural communities. We use data from various US Census Bureau sources, and cite other studies to provide a demographic overview of ageing in the rural United States, and to analyze how this situation differs in varying socio-demographic and regional contexts. In the concluding section, we focus on policy implications associated with rural ageing.     

Coming Home? Patterns and Characteristics of Return Migration in Kyrgyzstan

Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Kazakhstan are all major destinations for labour migrants from rural areas of southern Kyrgyzstan. Along with searching for better income, younger men and women also migrate for educational purposes; children and elderly people stay behind. While older migrants often regard this separation from their families as temporary, younger people start to put down roots in places other than their homes and this has long‐term consequences for development in rural areas. The paper therefore looks into families’ multi‐local settings and why young migrants fail to return home. It also considers the potential impact on rural development including remittance dependency, an increasing shortage of qualified labour and new conditions of social care. The paper concludes with an assessment of the policy implications.     

The Roles of Relationship With Family and Life Values in the Housing Choices of Elderly Koreans

Housing choice is a significant factor in forecasting the housing market. In an aging population in which the wealth of the elderly is found mostly in housing equity, the housing choices of the elderly are an increasingly important yet underrepresented research theme. In addition to lower income and greater leisure time, the change of family relationships of the elderly are likely to result in significantly different housing choices from those made by younger groups. This article investigates the roles of family relationships and life values in the housing choices (tenure and location) of elderly Koreans. Subjective life satisfaction and propensity for expenditure were found to be significant determinants in the choice of housing tenure, whereas the choice of location is influenced by circumstances, especially their relationship with their children. These findings provide new insight into the Asian housing market, in which the elderly of traditional large families have a children-oriented mindset and maintain a geographic proximity with their children despite a growing trend toward family nuclearization.     

A suggestion for future research on interface design of an Internet-based telemedicine system for the elderly

Telemedicine has emerged as an effective tool for providing high quality healthcare service and health-related information, especially in rural areas. Rural areas often have a larger elderly population with greater rates of preventable disease. These areas also have fewer medical resources and specialists, and have limited access to health services, all of which can influence overall health. An Internet-based telemedicine system can be one solution to provide the rural elderly with the proper health information when needed. The elderly obviously have limited capabilities compared with younger adults in the use of internet technology. However, the interfaces of the currently existing Internet-based telemedicine systems are not specifically developed for elderly users. This paper suggests future interface design research for an Internet-based telemedicine system specifically for the elderly.     

Chapter 7. Housing the Rural Elderly

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a case study of the potential of the Abbeyfield model of small congregate housing to meet the needs of the rural elderly. The results of interviews with thirty key informants indicate a very guarded assessment of Abbeyfield despite expressed dissatisfaction with current housing supply and options. Further analysis indicates a more favourable climate for Abbeyfield in smaller, more remote communities. Service producers/managers and municipal officials are more sceptical about Abbeyfield than are the elderly themselves, although these opinion leaders base their opinions upon assumptions about what the elderly want. We believe that these perceptions may be coloured by an experience of broken promises, failed experimentation and short-lived innovation.     

‘Generation rent’ and the ability to ‘settle down’: economic and geographical variation in young people’s housing transitions

The term ‘Generation Rent’ denotes young people who are increasingly living in the private rented sector for longer periods of their lives because they are unable to access homeownership or social housing. Drawing on qualitative data from two studies with young people and key-actors, this paper considers the phenomenon of ‘Generation Rent’ from the perspective of youth transitions and the concept of ‘home’. These frameworks posit that young people leaving the parental home traverse housing and labour markets until they reach a point of ‘settling down’. However, our data indicate that many young people face difficulties in this ‘settling’ process as they have to contend with insecure housing, unstable employment and welfare cuts which often force them to be flexible and mobile. This leaves many feeling frustrated as they struggle to remain fixed in place in order to ‘settle down’ and benefit from the positive qualities of home. Taking a Scottish focus, this paper further highlights the geographical dimension to these challenges and argues that those living in expensive and/or rural areas may find it particularly difficult to settle down.     

Will the retiring baby boomers return to rural periphery?

Many belonging to large post-war age cohorts in the western countries moved from rural areas to larger industrializing cities. They retire soon and can consider moving back to the childhood places. This article studies these baby boomers and the issues about their return to peripheral rural areas. The case regards one rural municipality, Ristijärvi, in the remote Northeastern Finland. Despite ageing of local population, Ristijärvi aims to attract new elderly inhabitants with the Seniorpolis project. The entire baby boom generation of Ristijärvi municipality was studied. A questionnaire was answered by 313 people born in Ristijärvi in 1946–1955 and who live now elsewhere in Finland. Answers were analyzed with cross tables and factor analysis. Additional phone interview was held with 66 considering return migration. Furthermore, local policies to attract the elderly (return) migrants were analyzed. Potential elderly return migrants with spouse can reach up to tenth of current municipal population. Of the respondents 3% expressed their wish to return and 19% could live part-time in Ristijärvi. Remained contacts and summer cottage in Ristijärvi and wish to live in rural areas influence positively on returning. Those interested in returning seek clean nature, peaceful environment, security, detached houses with beautiful setting, lower housing costs and landscapes of home region. Elderly and their return migration should be conceptualized further. Return migration can be a trigger for local development as presented in the public–private initiative the Seniorpolis. However, local elderly policies should be analyzed carefully and promoted those projects having long-term positive impact.     

The Struggle for Housing in Rural Venezuela: Ideology,Practice, and Power1

Abstract Little is known about the struggle for housing in rural areas or whether rural housing standards and aspirations resemble those of urban areas. This article, based on field research in Venezuela, analyzes housing ideology as expressed in public policy and housing programs, and in interviews with and actions of rural leaders, employers, government officials, and citizens. Competing housing ideologies co-exist but one—the cement-block house—dominates; although international and urban in origin, the cement-block model is diffused through rural housing agencies and political agendas. Housing practices are neither consistent with nor weaken the dominant ideology; and some aspects of rural housing conflicts are similar to those in urban settings. These findings support the need for further research to better understand the conditions under which rural and urban housing issues differ.     

Intergenerational Housing: The Case of Humanitas Netherlands

We analyze a case study of an innovative intergenerational housing arrangement in the Netherlands as an example of how a local long-term elderly care practice evolved in response to contemporary challenges. Identified elements of the established local practice relate to the characteristics and strategies of an institutional entrepreneur and elements of the new practice that comes into being, in which reciprocity and mutual learning have a central place. These elements might benefit future elderly housing initiatives as well.     

A Qualitative Study on Home Modification of Rural Caregivers for People with Dementia

Opinions about the responsibility for procuring sheltered housing in Norway have been studied among people 50 and older. Until recently, Norway offered standard public provision, where the state has been the central provider and organizer of care for the elderly. The results indicate great support for public responsibility for providing sheltered housing for the frail elderly, which is only marginally affected by background characteristics. However, older people's attitudes as to whether they would choose private housing provision are affected by income, age, and knowledge of the market, and many are uncertain. Women and low-income groups are overrepresented among those who are uncertain.     

The mixed-population issue in state-subsidized elderly housing: management problems posed by nonelderly and elderly tenants.

The management experiences of all Local Housing Authorities (LHAs) in Connecticut were investigated concerning younger disabled tenants in state-subsidized elderly housing. While as a group younger disabled tenants were more likely to violate the terms of their lease, including disrupting other tenants' enjoyment of their homes, management problems with younger disabled tenants were not reported by all LHAs. In general, serious, recurrent problems involving younger disabled tenants were concentrated among a relatively small group of LHAs. Emphasizing the diversity that characterizes the experiences of LHAs, the discussion emphasizes the need for caution in drawing conclusions about the issue of a mixed population. It also focuses on examples of how some LHAs have addressed the integration of younger disabled tenants in senior housing and proposes recommendations for viewing the issue in the broader context of public policy.     

The Mixed-Population Issue in State-Subsidized Elderly Housing: Management Problems Posed by Nonelderly and Elderly Tenants

Abstract

The management experiences of all Local Housing Authorities (LHAs) in Connecticut were investigated concerning younger disabled tenants in state-subsidized elderly housing. While as a group younger disabled tenants were more likely to violate the terms of their lease, including disrupting other tenants' enjoyment of their homes, management problems with younger disabled tenants were not reported by all LHAs. In general, serious, recurrent problems involving younger disabled tenants were concentrated among a relatively small group of LHAs. Emphasizing the diversity that characterizes the experiences of LHAs, the discussion emphasizes the need for caution in drawing conclusions about the issue of a mixed population. It also focuses on examples of how some LHAs have addressed the integration of younger disabled tenants in senior housing and proposes recommendations for viewing the issue in the broader context of public policy.     

Local Housing and Service Decisions

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to identify factors associated with local housing and service decisions that support aging adults in rural communities. These decisions represent de factostrategies that affect the quality of life of older residents and their ability to age in place. Data were collected from 951 informants in 134 Midwest rural communities. Analyses were undertaken to identify the role of community characteristics in predicting the availability of a group of housing options and support services. Findings support the notion that the community context is important to the delivery of key housing and service needs. Population size, proportion of community residents 65 years and older, and housing planning processes promoted gains in housing and services.     

Lay discourses of the rural and stated and revealed preferences for rural living. Some evidence of the existence of a rural idyll in the Netherlands

Dutch rural areas have changed into a post-modern countryside and have become marketable commodities. The demand for rural space and rural amenities has increased, with concomitant tensions on the rural housing market, tensions which are enhanced by the restrictive spatial policy in Dutch rural areas. The demand for rural residential environments appears to be large. This paper reports the results of our research into the preferences of urban households for living in a rural residential environment. These preferences will be linked with images and representations of the countryside. It is assumed that individual images of the countryside (whether idyllic or not) affect residential preferences and these preferences have, in turn, their effect on migration behaviour. Empirical evidence suggests that perceptions, preferences and behaviour pertaining to rural residential environments are indeed interrelated. The Dutch countryside commands a very positive image and the demand for residential environments with rural characteristics is considerable. Consequently, a rural idyll can be identified in The Netherlands.     

Social Capital in Rural and Urban Communities1

Abstract Conventional wisdom says that social capital is more common among families in rural communities than urban communities. Using data from the 1988 wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we compare the prevalence, type, and extent of social exchanges in these places. Results indicate that families living in rural areas are more likely to exchange exclusively with kin than are families living in urban areas. In particular, families living in rural areas are more likely to receive money help from kin than families in urban areas. Results on patterns of giving are more complex, with rural origin families with younger household heads more likely to give support to kin, and rural origin families with older heads less likely to provide such support, as compared to otherwise similar families of urban origin. Finally, only modest urban-rural differences in amounts exchanged (in dollars) are found among otherwise similar families. Overall, some of the urban-rural differences in patterns of exchange are explained by different family characteristics; however, key urban-rural differences remain, probably reflecting differences in norms and the availability of institutional support services in different areas.     

Toward Spatial Homogeneity of the Elderly Population

The growth of the elderly population is occurring at a much faster rate in suburban areas than in central cities. Using Annual Housing Survey data from both national and individiual SMSA surveys, the authors examine patterns of elderly residential location in forty-four suburban areas. A strong positive relationship is identified between the age of the population and the age of the housing stock. The aging in place of older households contributes significantly to this pattern. The authors argue that growth races among the suburban elderly will exceed central-city elderly growth rates, until a stabilization point is reached, characterized by homogeneous elderly population proportions across central-city and suburban areas.     

The resale of right to buy dwellings: a case study of migration and social change in rural England

Drawing on data relating to some 500 households, taken from local government records and questionnaire surveys, this paper examines the processes of migration and social change associated with the resale of former local authority dwellings in a rural part of the East Midlands, England, UK. Legislative change principally stemming from the Housing Act (1980) has given tenants a `right to buy’ their rented dwelling from the local authority landlord. By focussing on the longer term impact of this process the findings of this study reveal a radical discontinuity with the past, as new households with contrasting characteristics to previous occupants move in when these dwellings are resold on the open market. The study shows that the relative affordability of the dwellings in a highly competitive rural housing market is creating an opportunity for comparatively young, dual-career and largely urban families to move to the countryside. Their movement into former local authority dwellings has important implications for the future provision of local needs housing in rural areas.     

Physical Home Environment as a Determinant of Aging in Place for Different Types of Elderly Households

The aim of this research was to investigate the relationship between physical housing features and home modifications to aging in place or precipitating a housing transition among elderly households. Data was taken from two waves (1998 and 2000) of the Health and Retirement Survey. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses were performed. Residing in a multi-family home without an elevator was a predictor for housing transition for couple households, while residing in a home with small interior modifications was a predictor for remaining in place for single households. Implications for policy makers, health care providers, housing industry and elderly are discussed.     

Migration to less-popular rural areas in the Netherlands: Exploring the motivations

Migration into rural areas is often explained in terms of the rural idyll, the attraction of the countryside with its less hurried way of life in a quiet, spacious and green environment. However, this migration phenomenon has mostly been researched in attractive, amenity-rich, popular rural areas. This paper investigates the characteristics and motivations of migrants to less-popular rural areas using survey data (N = 664) for four municipalities in the North of the Netherlands. Our study shows a young group of in-migrants with relatively low incomes, but also a large proportion of working people and a considerable number of highly educated movers. Separating the motivations for choosing to live in a rural area in general from the motivations for choosing this specific rural area reveals that while the pull of the rural idyll is an important motivation for moving to a rural area in general, the reasons for choosing the specific rural area are a mixture of housing characteristics, the physical qualities of the environment, personal reasons and the low house prices in the area. Combining the motivations with the characteristics of the movers reveals the diversity within the movers group. Our analysis shows a group of movers motivated to live close to family and friends, consisting of return migrants, singles, the youngest and oldest age groups and also the lowest income group. The physical qualities of the environment attract a group of highly educated movers, people with high incomes and people aged between 35 and 64. The motivation of housing characteristics, referring in most cases to the availability of a specific house, is mentioned by a wide range of movers, but in particular by people moving from urban areas.     

Exiting or retaining owner-occupied housing in the United States 1999–2009: How do social programs matter?

This research examines exits from homeownership in the United States between 1999 and 2009 using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. We first document the extent to which homeowners exited owned housing (to a rental unit or a rent-free unit) during that time period. Second, we examine how socio-demographic characteristics, housing characteristics, debt levels, and receipt of public and private transfers are associated with exiting (or retaining) homeownership, with a particular focus on whether transfers counteract earnings decreases and/or housing cost increases to assist homeowners in retaining their homes. We also investigate whether these associations differ for several subgroups of homeowners defined by their location in the income distribution and race. Findings from regression models that include individual, year, and state fixed effects highlight the role of both labor markets and housing markets in influencing exits from homeownership. More generous and universal public transfers (such as OASDI) appear to help owners retain homes, whereas less generous and means-tested transfers do not. At the same time, the influences of universal transfers on retaining a home are small in magnitude compared to those of decreases in earnings and home values as well as increases in payment-to-income and consumer debt-to-income ratios.