Who is Jobless? A Comparison of Joblessness in Rural and Urban Areas in China

Since market‐oriented economic reform was launched in China in the 1980s, unemployment has been recognized by the government. This paper focuses on the differences in joblessness in rural and urban areas between rural migrant workers, peasants, and urban citizens. The results indicate that people in rural areas frequently lose their jobs, which differs from the traditional perception. There is a significantly lower jobless rate in urban areas. In contrast to the results of previous studies, the employment situation of rural migrant workers is closer to urban citizens rather than peasants. Logistic regression results show that the elderly, women, and less educated citizens have a higher likelihood of joblessness, both in urban and rural areas. Minorities have a lower likelihood of joblessness in rural areas and a higher likelihood in urban areas. Chinese Communist Party members and people without dependent children have a lower likelihood of joblessness in urban areas.     

何时方休?——中国老年人就业参与的队列分析

推迟退休年龄是应对人口老龄化的重要措施.利用第六次人口普查汇总数据,以40岁为年龄起点分析从中年到老年就业参与状况,并结合"五普"数据运用队列分析方法探讨老年人口就业状况的变化轨迹.结果显示,在法定退休年龄处,人口在业比例有一个明显的下降梯度,但法定退休年龄对老年群体的就业行为影响程度存在明显的城乡差异.城镇人口在业比例在50-60岁间明显下降,而农村人口在业比例下降则发生在60岁以后.此外,在业老年人口中超过80%为农村老年劳动力.虽然当前在农村地区并未实行退休制度,但农村养老金的发放以退休年龄为起点,因此,在调整退休年龄时需要特别关注农村老人,避免养老金的延迟发放使其陷入贫困和老无所依.     

Elderly African Americans as intragenerational caregivers

A growing number of older Americans serve as caregiving resources for their elderly spouses, partners, relatives, and/or friends. Yet, little research has addressed the impact and implications of this trend among African Americans. This article describes the results of a qualitative study examining the intragenerational caregiving experiences and perspectives of two cohorts of African Americans (urban and rural, N = 129) between the ages of 58 and 89. Its findings reveal important differences and commonalities associated with elderly African American caregivers and their care giving in urban and rural settings. Additionally, the study suggests that volunteer caregivers can often fill the void left by partners and relatives who predecease or fail to assume responsibility for the care of their elderly relatives. Their efforts do not displace those of friends and family members, but rather address unmet needs in available care. The discussion focuses on the implications of the study findings for public policy and practice.     

Subjective Well‐being Poverty of the Elderly Population in China

Poverty is represented not only by objective well‐being indicators which include income and consumption levels, but also by subjective indicators which reflect what a person feels. It is estimated in this article that the incidence of subjective well‐being poverty (SWP) among the Chinese rural elderly population in 2006 was 9.7 per cent, about 4.2 times as much as that of the country's total rural population in the same year, which was 2.3 per cent. Over 16 per cent of the rural elderly population and 11.5 per cent of the urban elderly population rated their life satisfaction as poor or very poor. In terms of SWP, senior citizens, especially those who live in rural areas or who are women or very aged, have become a special group among the poor in China. This article suggests that China's social policies for the new stage take into account the issue of absolute poverty and also that of SWP. A multi‐dimensional strategy system targeting the issue of poverty needs to be established, and a policy system to address poverty reduction as well as old age security and care should be implemented.     

年龄间的社会分化和农村家庭养老制度的资源困境

本文关注的是中国农村社会和农村家庭中不同年龄和代际间的社会平等问题。文章描述了农村老年人的物质生活和社会生活状况,指出农村老年人群体性的相对贫困现状,以及老年人生活质量和社会经济地位的弱化与农村整体生活水平逐步提高之间存在结构性矛盾,认为农村以年龄和代际为界的社会分化业已形成。文章还通过对家庭养老制度面临的资源困境的分析,进一步解释了经济、社会和文化变迁是如何通过改变农村的家庭制度和家庭中的代际关系对老年人的生活及其权力和权利状况产生影响的。     

老年人社会适应的社会工作介入方法操作技巧

作为注重操作性且具有完善理念和技术的专业工作方法,社会工作对老年人社会适应的介入是增进老年问题解决的有效措施。经过实践经验和理论的总结,社会工作形成了个案工作、小组工作和社区工作三大主要方法。本文从专业实务的角度解析三大主要专业方法在老年社会适应问题领域的操作性技巧。以提高社会工作专业方法在实务运用中的有效性,增进老年社会福利服务专业化发展。     

Older People 'on the Edge' in the Countrysides of Europe

Relatively few comparative studies have focused specifically upon the socio‐economic conditions affecting the welfare of older rural Europeans. Such publications as exist are usually confined to single studies. In presenting a European overview of their ‘life‐world’ this paper focuses upon the general conditions of older rural Europeans, living in different types of countryside within a centre–periphery framework. These conditions are largely dependent upon the interconnectivity (nexus) between regional urban centres and the older people's types of settlement. The extent of the global socio‐economic flows between urban centres and countrysides is critical, especially for those living in less accessible and remote European areas. Older people's positive and negative outcomes are seen to occur within four possible urban–rural parameters. The first consists of two‐way socio‐economic urban–rural flows that are more likely to be of benefit to significant numbers of older persons, especially in urban fringe and accessible countrysides. The second parameter arises when there is a long‐standing impasse, where the lack of communication between the rural locality and urban centre hampers socio‐economic urban–rural flows, isolating older people, particularly in less accessible and remote countrysides. The third occurs when regional and local urban centres block or cut back socio‐economic flows to the countryside. The fourth takes place when the rural communities resist socio‐economic urban flows that they regard as a threat to their rural idyll. Exemplars within each of the four urban–rural alternatives help to show the applicability and workability of this four‐way exploratory approach.     

Differential Use of Informal and Formal Helping Networks Among Rural Elderly Black and White Floridians

Until recently, relatively little data has been available concerning either the minority elderly or the rural elderly. This paper presents data which examines differences between black and white rural elderly respondents with regard to their social situation as well as their use of both informal and formal support systems. The findings based on 112 interviews, suggest that there are important differences between the two groups, with implications for service delivery.     

老年人孤独感差异及影响因素分析

文章利用调查数据分析贵阳市不同老年群体孤独感的差异状况,考察了个人特征、家庭关系和社会关系三个层面对老年人孤独感的影响。结果发现:在老年人孤独感差异方面,有配偶与无配偶老年人之间的差异最为明显,城乡之间及不同年龄、收入和文化程度之间的差异也较为明显,但男女性老年人之间的差异不明显;在回归分析结果中,家庭关系变量对老年人孤独感的影响最强,社会关系变量其次,个人特征变量的影响强度最弱。     

Floating Population or Urban Citizens? Status,Social Provision and Circumstances of Rural–Urban Migrants in China

This article uses semi‐structured in‐depth interviews with rural–urban migrants in Tianjin to look at the personal circumstances of such migrants in China. The interviews suggest that, unlike their predecessors in previous years, many rural–urban migrants now come with the intention of settling down. While there have been major policy changes in the last five years, these migrants are still, in many respects, not integrated into urban society. Meeting these challenges would require further changes in urban policies and urban society, taking account of the needs and interests of rural–urban migrants.     

“单方索取”还是“相互需要”——代际同住中的需求组合与亲子选择

基于2018年中国老年社会追踪调查的数据,本文深入挖掘老年人与成年子女的同住需求组合类型,并分析其中子女的性别和排行两个维度的同住机制。研究发现,在中国,代际互惠的合作型同住占据首要地位,代际重心下移和浓厚的互惠色彩是当今代际同住的主流, 城乡之间代际互惠的逻辑存在差异。从代际同住机制看,特别是在农村,儿子依旧是同住选择偏好的对象,但女儿在代际同住中更有可能承担赡养的责任;农村地区排行靠后的子女在代际同住中更有可能得到父母的帮扶,也更有可能承担赡养的责任。     

Primary Caregivers and Chinese Elders’ Demand on Community Services

Abstract

The most influential model explaining the elderly’s service use is Andersen and Newman's model. But the applicability of the model on elders’ demand on community services has not been tested, especially in developing countries such as China. This research tested the applicability of the model by studying how primary caregiver relations to the elderly influence Chinese community-dwelling elders’ demand on community services. With a total of 2,124 respondents aged 65 and older who reported primary caregivers, six primary caregiver relations were examined: son, spouse, daughter, daughter-in-law, unmarried son and daughter, and other. Data came from the 2014 wave of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). Results indicated that: (1) Elders cared for by daughters-in-law showed a significantly stronger tendency of expecting community services than elders cared for by other caregivers among both rural and urban areas. (2) Elders were least likely to expect community services in two cases: urban elders taken care of by daughters and rural elders whose primary caregivers were unmarried sons and daughters. Since Chinese elders cared for by different caregivers tended to seek community care in different manners, future research may study how suitable community service programs can be developed to well meet the needs of various elderly groups.     

城市社区老人心理健康服务现状调查——来自重庆市主城社区的调查数据

以重庆市主城社区老人为调查对象,从老人的基本情况、心理健康状况、心理健康服务需求、心理服务支持系统等方面的调查数据进行详细分析,得出了家庭、邻里同辈群体是老人心理健康的重要支持系统、需要建立完善的城市社区老人心理健康服务体系等结论。     

城市社区老人心理健康服务现状调查——来自重庆市主城社区的调查数据

以重庆市主城社区老人为调查对象,从老人的基本情况、心理健康状况、心理健康服务需求、心理服务支持系统等方面的调查数据进行详细分析,得出了家庭、邻里同辈群体是老人心理健康的重要支持系统、需要建立完善的城市社区老人心理健康服务体系等结论。     

城市“空巢”老人与孤独感研究

本文运用对烟台市230位城市老人的问卷调查数据,研究“空巢”与城市老人孤独感之间的关系及影响老人孤独感的因素。研究结果表明,“空巢”与老人的孤独感没有统计意义上的相关关系;大多数的老人自愿选择与子女分住;代际间的交往受居住距离的影响;影响老人孤独感的主要因素有婚姻状况、子女是否孝顺及对自己赡养现状和子女照顾的满意度等。通过分析我们可以得出这样的结论：在烟台市,“空巢”对老人的孤独感没有显著的影响,而婚姻状况和子女是否孝顺是影响老年孤独感最为重要的因素。     

Social Support and Self-Rated Health of African American Women Informal Caregivers: Urban and Rural Differences

In this study, we examined how geographic location might differently influence social support and self-rated health for rural and urban African American women caregivers. We used cross-sectional data from 253 urban and 263 rural women primary caregivers. Controlling for key demographic factors, we regressed caregivers’ self-rated health on social engagement, structural, and functional aspects of social support for urban and rural caregivers separately. The perception of family functioning was positively associated with urban and rural caregivers’ self-rated health. Urban caregivers reported having significantly more contact with their family and more informal helpers compared to rural caregivers. Furthermore, church attendance, a measure of social engagement, was significant for urban caregivers’ self-rated health, but not rural caregivers. Our findings affirmed the importance of foregrounding context and disaggregating social support, and point to the need for interventions targeting family functioning and paying attention to geographic location.     

The aging of the Chinese population and the cost of health care

It is projected that by 2050 China could have a staggering 115 million elderly citizens over 80 years old. Serious planning is needed to cope with this demand. This is the direct and inevitable result of the one-child policy that came into effect in 1979, as an independent policy to the Comprehensive Economic Reform; but the complementary nature is unmistakable.In accordance with the objective of this special issue of the Social Science Journal, the modest objective of this paper presents a brief history of the health care reform which really only began in 2002. We borrow from a major pilot study (the CHARLS data set) to provide quantitative measures of the cost of medical insurance. CHARLS samples two provinces, the inland poorer Gangsu and the coastal prosperous Zhejiang. The premium was 13 and 27 Yuan for the rural populations Gansu and Zhejiang. For the urban population, the premium was 289 versus 337 for men versus women in urban Gansu. But for the urban areas of Zhejiang, the pattern is radically different; 324.3 Yuan for women and a much higher 608 Yuan for men.Urban residents have always enjoyed better health care. With the support of the central government, 90% of rural population now received some form of basic health coverage. The issue is the reimbursement rate. For outpatient care, the reimbursement rates max out at under 40% and 32% for the urban and rural patients, respectively. This is certainly not enough to cover catastrophic illness, and that is why many Chinese feel they are just one major illness away from utter poverty. Outpatient care is even worse. The reimbursement rates average around only 10%. As Chinese statistics on full medical cost (especially for the elderly) is lacking, we utilize statistics from Taiwan and try to estimate the health care cost of the aging population.We discuss potential issues observed in the Taiwan experience, and proposed an incentive scheme, Self-Motivated Health Maintenance (SMHM), to deal with moral hazards and to reduce the overall health care cost. We believe the SMHM is a win–win–win solution. China has the possibility of building this into their health insurance.     

Rural-urban migration and socioeconomic development in Ghana: some discussions

This article presents a discussion of rural-urban migration as a source of social and behavioral change in Ghana. It explores the extent to which the urban social environment in Ghana generates conflicts for migrants with a different value orientation and the degree of influence of the urban social environment on migrants' behavior. The first part of the discussion focuses on the nature of Ghana's urbanization process, the motivation and characteristics of rural-urban migrants, and the nature of the social interaction between migrants and the social urban environment. Migrants contribute directly and indirectly to rural development in many ways. Some urban migrants achieve economic and material wealth and, through their attachment to voluntary tribal associations, assist local community development. Government can augment this process of migrant investment in rural life by identifying these actions as patriotic efforts and awarding citizenship medals or challenge grants. Governments need to review their citizenship laws carefully in light of the "brain drain" issues in the new world order and maximize the flow of resources, technical skills, and ideas from international migrants. A high-quality rural labor force can be enticed to live in rural areas by offering higher salaries and benefits, low income tax rates, better housing, and rural electrification and sanitation. Private firms should be offered incentives to locate in rural areas and increase employment opportunities for rural labor. Career advancement of development planners should be tied to program success or some form of public accountability for careful allocation of resources in rural areas. Fertility policies should be sensitive to urban subgroups. Urban and rural social differences are minor and do not impede urban assimilation, but unemployment and underemployment are problems for many.     

The Inequality Effect of Urbanization and Social Integration

On the basis of the China Social Survey (CSS2011) and related urban statistics, this article conducts an analysis of the “unequal” effects of urbanization and of problems in rural migrants’ social integration with urban residents in the course of their urbanization. We found that although the increased rate of population urbanization did not produce a significant difference between “rural migrants” and “city people” in terms of income, migrants fare considerably worse than city people with regard to social security, cultural life, psychological acceptance and status identification. This kind of inequality transforms the original urban/rural dual structure into a new dichotomy that divides urban dwellers into the migrant population and residents with urban household registration, thereby impeding social integration. This finding will help us understand the causes of the social barriers in current urbanization and may provide theoretical and empirical reference material for “new-type urbanization,” particularly as it relates to the transformation of the rural migrant population into urban citizens.     

农村老年人进城养老：挑战及社会工作干预

农村老年人进城养老是随着中国城市化和农村老年人口分化而出现的社会养老新问题。农村老年人进城养老对现行的家庭养老、机构养老、社区照顾等养老模式形成挑战。应对农村老年人进城养老问题,在制度层面需取消城乡二元户籍限制;在养老服务理念和方式上则需社会工作的介入和干预。