Complacency in Process Safety: A Behavior Analysis Toward Prevention Strategies

ABSTRACT

Complacency inhibits safe behaviors of workers and managers. This is of concern to industries where process safety is needed to reduce the chance of catastrophic events such as fires and explosions. A behavioral definition of complacency is offered as trending behavioral variation that eventually exceeds safety boundaries. Behavioral processes that contribute to these patterns of variability are discussed and analyzed, including habituation, extinction, unprogrammed reinforcement, the avoidance paradox, rule-governed behavior, and competing contingencies of production. Solution strategies are suggested that address this analysis of behavioral variance, including pinpointing behavioral variation related to safety, changing training design, strengthening positive reinforcement for process-related behaviors of workers and management, reducing sources of unprogrammed reinforcement for dangerous variation, strengthening rule-governed behavior, and changing contingencies for managers and executives whose decisions affect behavior and process safety at many levels in the company.     

Behavioral Perspectives on Variability in Human Behavior as Part of Process Safety

ABSTRACT

Process safety involves worker decisions at various points in an extended process, and much remains unknown regarding sources of variability in worker behavior at these decision points. This paper seeks to explain why some workers may be deviating from sanctioned policies and procedures. Risky choice is analyzed through discussion of positive and negative reinforcement, habituation in terms of respondent and operant behavior, risk discounting, and consequence dimensions that include a review of prospect theory, heuristics, and behavioral decision theory. Recommendations are made for improving our understanding of sources of variability in process safety by conducting systematic research on the perspectives reviewed.     

Participatory Action Research in Affordable Housing Partnerships: Collaborative Rationality,or Sleeping with the Growth Machine?

Abstract

Participatory Action Research (PAR) emphasizes working with communities to develop questions that are relevant to their needs, then co-generating research to answer these questions. Typically, PAR focuses on empowering marginalized communities. Transforming Housing is a community–university collaborative partnership based in Melbourne Australia, with researchers asking developers, government, investors and community housing providers what they need to know in order to provide more and better affordable housing, then collectively generating ideas. After three years, this article takes a reflective practice lens to examine both possibilities and pitfalls arising from PAR with the rich and powerful. The article concludes that collaborate research on affordable housing can lead to outcomes intellectually honest, sustainable beyond political cycles and capable of effecting positive change at both the local and the metropolitan scales. However, this form of collaborative research can be easily derailed by politics, and does not address underlying structural inequalities.     

13 Ethical Decision Making: Where We’ve Been and Where We’re Going

Abstract

Research on ethical decision making, or behavioral ethics, in organizations has developed from a small niche area to a burgeoning stand‐alone field, one that has gained not only in number of articles written but in the legitimacy of the topic and the field. Our review motivated us to first try and summarize the field, not by comparing it to existing theoretical paradigms, but rather by observing what the data were telling us. We present our summary in the form of a model of ethical decision making and a typology that distinguishes intentionality of actions from ethicality of actions. After presenting this summary of the data, we critically review the research in this area, noting those areas which offer substantial insight and those that do not. In looking to the future and how the field can enhance the former and mitigate the latter, we identify several areas in which meaningful progress can be made, including defining what is “ethical”, revisiting unsubstantiated assumptions, focusing on the processes of ethical decision making, fixing methodological issues, and disentangling the outcomes of ethical decisions.     

Notes from an Introspective Behaviorist

Abstract

Based on the three-contingency model of performance management, I make the following argument: (1) Often, we fail to behave as we should because the natural contingencies supporting appropriate behavior are ineffective; the natural contingencies involve outcomes for each individual response that are either too small, though of cumulative significance, or outcomes that are too improbable. The delay of the outcome is essentially irrelevant. The psychodynamic model of the cognitive motivational theorists provides a poor explanation for why we fail to behave as we should. (2) The performance-management contingencies in organizational behavior management (OBM) must usually involve deadline-induced aversive control, even when they are based on powerful reinforcers. Furthermore, such performance management succeeds only to the extent that the person's behavioral history, “Jewish mother,” has inculcated an appropriate value system. Wiegand and Geller's critique of the necessity of the use of aversive control fails to take into account the necessity of deadlines and the difference between instrumental and hedonic reinforcers; furthermore, it greatly over values the power of intrinsic reinforcement contingencies in OBM.     

Developing a manufacturing vision

The concept of a manufacturing vision is introduced as a company specific, commonly shared, holistic picture of the way in which future manufacturing in the company will function. First is presented what a manufacturing vision is, and then is presented a five-step framework in which such a manufacturing vision may be developed. A manufacturing vision is regarded as a bridge between the mission, goals, and strategies of an industrial enterprise and the detailed design of a manufacturing system. Such a bridge may ensure that manufacturing is able to make a relevant strategic contribution to developing and sustaining the competitiveness of the company and may serve as a guide for innovation and integration of the various elements of a manufacturing system. The paper rests on action research projects in more than ten industrial companies, and the experiences gained are discussed in a section on issues related to the development process including experimentation without fear of losing face, participation and involvement of managers and employees, and finally the outset for a manufacturing vision. To give an example of a manufacturing vision the paper also very briefly introduces a case of a medium-sized supplier of welded parts and equipment for a number of different industries.     

Process Safety Behavioral Systems: Behaviors Interlock in Complex Metacontingencies

ABSTRACT

This paper seeks to identify behavioral components active in process safety. Three types of behavior classes are identified as contributors to process safety: task-specific behaviors, safety-directed behaviors, and behaviors associated with situational awareness. Behavioral systems analysis is used to provide a framework for identifying the cross-functional interlocking behavioral contingencies that can, even over a period of years, contribute to process safety incidents. Leadership behaviors are also identified that can create the context in the form of metacontingencies that maintain these interlocking contingencies.     

6 Pay and Performance: Individuals,Groups, and Executives

Abstract

In this chapter, we address three pay for performance (PFP) questions. First, what are the conceptual mechanisms by which PFP influences performance? Second, what programs do organizations use to implement PFP and what is the empirical evidence on their effectiveness? Third, what perils and pitfalls arise on the way from PFP theory to its execution in organizations? We address these questions in general terms, but also highlight unique issues that arise in PFP for teams and for executives. We highlight the fact that research and practice in the area of PFP requires one to deal with a number of trade‐offs. For example, strengthening PFP links can generate powerful motivation effects, but sometimes these are in unintended and unanticipated directions, resulting in undesirable effects. In addition, there are also trade‐offs in deciding the degree of emphasis to give to individual versus team performance and to results versus behaviors in PFP plans. What all this means is that, as in other areas of management, “one best way” advice (e.g., do or do not use individual PFP plans) or “sound‐bite” conclusions (e.g., PFP does not exist; PFP does or does not motivate) are rarely valid, but rather depend on the circumstances and the organization. In the realm of executive pay, we question the current conventional wisdom in the management literature that there is little or no PFP. We close the chapter with a discussion of our key conclusions and suggestions for what we think would be the most interesting and useful future research areas. We encourage the management literature, which has increasingly become interested in the concept of evidence‐based management, to execute this concept more effectively in its research and when talking or writing about pay.     

Response Generalization in Behavioral Safety

Abstract

This paper details concerns with the potential misuse of the term “response generalization” in the behavioral safety literature. Stokes and Baer's (1977) technologies of generalization and the basic literature on response induction are used to make the claim. Ludwig and Geller's (2000) Journal of Organizational Behavior Management special issue describing their work with pizza delivery drivers is used as an example. The potential problems of non-technical use of language in a technological behavioral science are briefly discussed. Finally, Baer, Wolf, and Risley's (1968, 1987) criteria of applied behavior analysis are re-visited in this context in hopes of calling researchers of organizational behavior management to more closely align their work with the tradition of applied behavior analysis.     

Feedback: Use and Possible Behavioral Functions

ABSTRACT

Concepts, definitions and information feedback practices are discussed and illustrated from both a “traditional” Industrial/Organizational perspective and an Organizational Behavior Management perspective. A strategy for organizing feedback is proposed which incorporates both dimensions of feedback and the behavioral functions by which feedback operates.     

Response-Response Relationships in Organizational Behavior Management

Abstract

The issue of behavioral covariation has been a topic of interest to behavior analysts for many years. Many writers have used the term response generalization interchangeably with behavioral covariation. In this paper, we argue from the extant literature that the term “response generalization” should be used to describe only very specific occasions of behavioral covariation. In fact, we argue, response generalization is merely one of at least six types of behavioral covariation observed in organizational behavior management studies. After describing response generalization, the remaining five types of response-response relations we describe are: (1) physiological relations, (2) when target behaviors occasion related behaviors, (3) when target behaviors reinforce related behaviors, (4) when target and related behaviors are maintained by the same reinforcing stimulus, and (5) covariation through participation in verbal relations. We conclude by discussing the potential for additional research on this topic in the area of verbal relations.     

Integrating Person Factors into the OBM Framework

Abstract

A common perspective is that behavior-based and person-based approaches to behavior change represent opposite poles of an intervention continuum. However, an integration of these approaches might not only be possible but necessary to develop optimal behavior-change interventions. A better understanding of person factors may help define the most appropriate intervention for a particular situation. Focusing on person factors such as employee perceptions and personality states will be accepted to the extent we can explain these factors in behavioral terms and demonstrate objective benefits with their application. This article attempts to integrate certain person factors into a behavioral framework for the purpose of both increasing behavioral intervention effectiveness as well as broadening the scope of OBM research.     

Effects of Process and Human Performance Improvement Strategies

Abstract

Organizational performance is a function of many variables, two of which are work process factors and human performance factors. Our study compared the effects of changing a work process versus human performance improvement techniques and the combined effects of combing both techniques. A 2 (manual vs. electronic process) X 2 (with vs. without behavioral intervention) between-subjects design with stratified random assignment was employed. Forty-eight participants performed a word processing task where their minutes-in-possession and error rate were recorded. Results revealed a main effect for process type and a main effect for behavioral intervention. The largest effects were observed with the context of a combined intervention. The implications of using a combined approach and topics for future researchers are discussed.     

TAPAS: A modular framework to support reuse in scheduling software development

Industrial schedulers try to take into account more and more complex aspects of manufacturing and become, as a consequence, more difficult to use efficiently. We suggest a modular framework for scheduling in order to support the development of schedulers better adapted to the workshop they are used in. An extensive reuse of past developments is made possible by the definition of a powerful, yet generic, data model, together with a fully modular architecture and the use of standards, e.g. CORBA, MMS and STEP. Examples of the first schedulers developed within this framework in an industrial context are shown.     

Risk Perceptions,General Environmental Beliefs,and Willingness to Address Climate Change

The research reported here examines the relationship between risk perceptions and willingness to address climate change. The data are a national sample of 1225 mail surveys that include measures of risk perceptions and knowledge tied to climate change, support for voluntary and government actions to address the problem, general environmental beliefs, and demographic variables. Risk perceptions matter in predicting behavioral intentions. Risk perceptions are not a surrogate for general environmental beliefs, but have their own power to account for behavioral intentions. There are four secondary conclusions. First, behavioral intentions regarding climate change are complex and intriguing. People are neither nonbelievers who will take no initiatives themselves and oppose all government efforts, nor are they believers who promise both to make personal efforts and to vote for every government proposal that promises to address climate change. Second, there are separate demographic sources for voluntary actions compared with voting intentions. Third, recognizing the causes of global warming is a powerful predictor of behavioral intentions independent from believing that climate change will happen and have bad consequences. Finally, the success of the risk perception variables to account for behavioral intentions should encourage greater attention to risk perceptions as independent variables. Risk perceptions and knowledge, however, share the stage with general environmental beliefs and demographic characteristics. Although related, risk perceptions, knowledge, and general environmental beliefs are somewhat independent predictors of behavioral intentions.     

Is the scheduling task context-dependent? A survey investigating the presence of constraints in different manufacturing contexts

Abstract

Most studies regarding real scheduling constraints only consider the constraints related to the specific manufacturing environment studied, limiting the possibility of drawing general conclusions. A survey of 50 companies was conducted in order to discover which constraints were present and what their relationship was with the scheduling context. This paper investigates which practical scheduling constraints are present in the manufacturing industry and whether the scheduling task is context-dependent. Results of this study show that some practical production constraints are context-dependent.     

Work-home interaction from a work psychological perspective: Development and validation of a new questionnaire,the SWING

Abstract

This paper reports upon an investigative study of stress in the Ambulance Service. The aims of the research were in part methodological and in part substantive. Methodologically, the study sought to validate as measurable constructs the perceptions of sources of stress reported by ambulance staff in response to questionnaire items. Substantively, it sought to identify these possible sources of stress and to measure the relationship between their perceived importance and such moderating variables as personality characteristics, length of service, and urban or rural location of operation and rank. Both aspects of the study are reported.     

The Interplay of Goals and Promises of Pay-for-Performance on Individual and Group Performance: An Operant Interpretation

ABSTRACT

Building upon the work of Fellner and Sulzer-Azaroff (1984), an operant model of goal setting is presented from which the effects of goals as well as monetary reinforcers can be examined and compared. The model is premised upon the assumption that the effectiveness of individual and group goals and financial reinforcers can be predicted following a detailed examination of an individual's reinforcement history, level of deprivation and satisfaction and the prevailing behavioral contingencies. The effectiveness of the two discriminative stimuli—goals and promises of pay-for-peformance—are discussed in relationship to operant principles.     

The Discussion of Behavioral Principles in JOBM

Abstract

We addressed the inclusion of behavioral analyses in the research and case study articles published in the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM) over the past 5 years (1992–1997). The amount of behavior analysis included in JOBM articles appears to be greater than that found in JABA in the early 1980s. However, the presence of such analyses in JOBM can still be increased. Further, a significant number of articles do not mention how the particular intervention was chosen to address a specific organizational problem. This lack of a functional assessment makes it difficult for readers to decide if a proposed intervention is applicable to a situation with which they might be dealing. Additionally, we reviewed articles and examined the range of those behavioral principles discussed and found little diversity among the principles used. This paper serves to address some of the problems and ramifications associated with this separation and to offer suggestions as to how this situation could be improved.