Child Support Awards

Child support is an important factor in the financial well-being of divorced mothers who have dependent children. Although the financial effects of child support awards have been studied for a number of groups, they have not typically been explored inrelation to "in-kind" income factors such as insurance payments that may be part of a divorce settlement. Data on divorce awards were collected from court records. Child support awards were examined to determine which factors influence the likelihood of award and the amount of child support awarded. Factors which were found to differentially influence amount of child support awarded were home ownership, award of alimony, length of marriage and award of in-kind income.     

Family Politics:

Canada has a currently estimated population of 25,358,500, approximately that of the state of California. Saskatchewan is a Canadian province with a population of approximately 1,017,800. The majority of the individuals in the study had been single at the time of marriage and married for an average of 11 years. Only three grounds for divorce were utilized; that of separation not less than three years, adultery or cruelty. Custody of eight out of 10 dependent children was awarded to the mother, one out of 10 to the father, and for one out of 10 no award was made. In this study custodial fathers were never granted maintenance, and when the grounds for divorce were separation, women did not receive maintenance as often. Child maintenance was awarded in approximately seven out of 10 cases, with the awards ranging from $l/year/child to $350/month/child. Awards did not appear to follow any pattern based on husband's salary, with maintenance ranging from 0%-40% of the husband's stated monthly gross income.     

Can Adequate Child Support Be Legislated? Responses to Guidelines and Enforcement

This article explores the relationship between noncustodial parents' willingness to pay child support, state child support guidelines and enforcement efforts, and child support awards and subsequent compliance. Our game theoretic model, which distinguishes cases of asymmetric information from cases of symmetric information, demonstrates that guidelines and increased enforcement can increase payments when awards are court-ordered but may not increase payments and could even reduce child expenditures when some payment would otherwise have occurred voluntarily. Our analyses of awards to divorced or separated mothers from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth are consistent with the model.     

The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce

An investigation was conducted by the author into concessions of rightful property, child support and maintenance awards from ex-spouses under pressures from emotional blackmail of coercion. Information was obtained from legal and sociological literature, divorce records in Hennepin County, Minnesota, along with informal interviews with one attorney and eight divorced women. Spousal attempts at coercion during divorce negotiations may influence some women to make stipulations, agreements honored by this court, to less child support, property and/or maintenance than suggesteed guidelines or if they were to litigate those matters through the court system. This has economic, theoretical, therapeutic and research implications.     

Family policy and critical science research: Facilitating change

The principles of critical science for policy research are outlined and one research project is used as a case study. The study was intentionally designed to facilitate changes that would positively influence the economic well-being of children from divorced families. The project uses the critical science processes of public dialogue about child support guidelines for purposes of collaborative problem solving. The normative theories of procedural and distributive justice are used to guide the research reporting. The project contributes to changes in the practices of estimating the income needs of children, changes in estimating the relative monetary contributions of their parents, and proposed legislation and modifications in the state child support guidelines. She received her Ph.D. in family ecology from Michigan State University. Her research interests include the valuing issues of family life quality, family decision making, divorce,and the economic adjustments of families to economic stressors. She received her M.A. degree in Family Education from the University of Minnesota. Her research interests include decision making and parenting. She received her Ph.D. degree in anthropology from the University of Minnesota. Her research interests include social and cultural change and the integration of research findings into public policy decision making.     

LEGISLATING LOVE: The Effect of Child Support and Welfare Policies on Father–child Contact

Reducing non-marital childbearing and making nonresidential fathers take greater responsibility for their children were identified as goals of numerous policy changes since the 1980s. Child-support award rates for children born to unmarried parents have been quite low historically, leading lawmakers to focus on increasing both award and payment rates for this group. Nonmarital fathers are also much less likely to have contact with their children. Although evidence suggests that policy efforts increase child support awards and receipt, the link between child support policies, child support outcomes, and father-child contact has received less attention. This paper uses data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation on children born between 1985–1997 to investigate the relationship between child-support award and receipt and the amount of contact that fathers have with their non-residential children. Since it is likely that both of these behaviors are, in part, determined by unobservable characteristics of the father, we estimate an instrumental variables Tobit model. The model is identified by our assumption that child support policy variables can impact child support awards and payments, but father-child contact cannot be directly legislated. Our results suggest that there are unintended, but desirable effects of child support establishment and collection. Policies to collect child support not only increase financial resources to families, but through their impact on payments increase visitation and contact between these children and their fathers. The estimated impact of receiving child support on contact is more than 27 days per year.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Economic Association, Washington DC, January 2003 and the Annual Meetings of the Association of Public Policy and Management, November 2003. Support from NICHD Grant # HD30944 is gratefully acknowledged. We would like to thank Suzann Eshleman for excellent computer programming and James Scully for providing us with data on genetic testing laws.     

Post-adoption needs of families adopting children with developmental disabilities

The post-adoption service use and needs of 125 families who had adopted children with developmental disabilities were examined using a structured mail questionnaire. Although satisfaction with services used was generally high, many families did not have access to basic family support services such as respite care, life planning and support groups. Income was the only demographic variable which correlated with service need. Middle income families (mean = $30,000 to $34,999) were more likely to need support groups and babysitting for other children than either lower or higher income groups. Of particular note in this study is the relatively high incidence of transracial adoptions. Thirty-one percent of the sample had adopted children of a different race than the family. The implications of the findings and service recommendations are discussed.     

Alternative Formulas for Distributing Parental Incomes at Divorce

The current study applied five formulas for distributing parental incomes at divorce to 414 court case records in Minnesota and evaluated which formulas and actual court orders provided sufficient incomes for male and female-headed households. The study further explored influences of pre-divorce gross income levels, household/genders, and lengths of marriage on the post-divorce income-to-needs ratios (ITN) produced by the five formulas and actual court orders, using MANOVA. Results were interpreted using distributive justice principles of equity, needs, and contributions. Males have higher ITN with each alternative, except the income-sharing formula. The actual court orders and the income-sharing formula produce the largest discrepancy between male and female ITN and the highest percentage of females living below poverty level guidelines.Kathrine C. Daniels, University of Minnesota, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108-6140; e-mail: dani0022@umn.edu.Kathryn D. Rettig, University of Minnesota, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55107-6140; e-mail: krettig@che.umn.edu.Robert delMas, General College of the University of Minnesota, 354 Appleby Hall, 28 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455; e-mail: delma001@umn.edu.This paper originated from Kathrine Daniels’ doctoral dissertation entitled, alternative strategies of dissolving the economic partnership of marriage. Further, the research was funded by a grant from The McKnight Foundation to the Child Support Enforcement Division of the Minnesota Department of Human Services, and a subcontract to the University of Minnesota Department of Family Social Science. Additional support was provided through a grant from, The University of Minnesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs’ Faculty Interactive Research Program, as well as a project grant from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Project 53–054, Decision-Making Integral to Relationship Transitions in Families, Kathryn D. Rettig, Principal Investigator.     

The Effects of Background Characteristics of Attorneys and Judges on Decision Making in Domestic Relations Court

The purposes of this research were: (1) to determine whether background characteristics of attorneys and judges affect the awarding of child support orders and (2) to determine whether institution of 1987 Ohio child support guidelines provides predictable and fair child support awards. It was concluded that the two sets of background characteristics had separate effects on the awarding of child support oders. Attorney's background characteristics affected receipt of child support awards. Judges' background characteristics affected amount of child support awards. Institution of the 1987 Ohio child support guidelines did not provide predictable and fair child support awards. Attorneys were found to be reluctant to win child support awards for their clients. Judges with low integrity scores were found to be deviating from the 1987 Ohio child support guidelines.     

Child support guidelines: Economic theory and policy considerations

Federal legislation has mandated that all states develop numeric guidelines for child support awards in divorce and paternity suits. The purpose of this article is to review the theoretical models currently used in guidelines development and to present an analysis of issues pertinent to the development and use of guidelines. A familiarity with the principles underlying child support guidelines will assist family scientists who may be called upon to provide expertise on this public policy issue.Barbara R. Rowe is Family Resource Management Extension Specialist, College of Family Life, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-2949. Her research interests include the economics of divorce and at-home-income-generation. She received her Ph.D. from Oregon State University.     

The Economics of Divorce

This paper reviews the economic consequences of the current laws of marital dissolution. Findings from seven states reporting primary data are compared on three judicial trends: the basis for property awards in equal and equitable distribution states; the frequency, amount, and duration of alimony awards; and current rulings on child custody and amounts of child support awards. The major consequence of these legal rules is a deterioration in the economic well-being of women and children following divorce.     

Noncustodial Fathers Following Divorce

Noncustodial fathers are men whose parental rights and obligations have been altered through judicial action, usually accompanying marital separation and divorce. In the majority of divorces, physical and legal custody of children is taken from fathers and reassigned to mothers only. Despite the curtailment of their decision-making authority and despite the limitations imposed on their day-to-day presence in their children’s lives, in the majority of divorces fathers retain the duty to provide economic support for their minor children. The bulk of quantitative research on the post-divorce involvement of men as noncustodial fathers is structured by explora- tion of the interrelationships among these parameters: child custody awards, visitation privileges and performance, child support awards and compliance, and child well-being. The documentation of important linkages between child support compliance and child outcome have focused both social science and legislative attention on means to foster greater paternal acceptance of responsibility for children. Research using open-ended interviews and smaller surveys of limited samples have been of great importance in providing a richer understanding of the noncustodial father-child relationship. To retain(or for some, to build for the first time) a meaningful paternal relationship, men are challenged to find new ways to confront issues of autonomy, connectedness and power. However, societal supports for moving beyond the traditional polarization of genders and roles through which families have been organized are sorely lacking. The ways in which men respond to the changes precipitated by divorce are influenced by a number of factors related to their own self-definition as well as to the broader social context in which they operate. In order to design psychoeducational or therapeutic interventions that allow noncustodial fathers to adapt in ways that are beneficial to themselves and ultimately to their children, an awareness of these factors is imperative.     

Collateral Damage: The Lived Experiences of Divorced Mothers Without Custody

This qualitative study utilizing narrative analysis and grounded theory examines the history and experiences of 14 Canadian women who have lost custody of their children within a legal divorce process. Each woman's storied experience focused on themes of attachment and loss associated with involuntary child absence, legal abuse within the adversarial system, and judgment based on nonconformity to a motherhood ideal; physical violence and emotional abuse in the family system; access denial and parental alienation; stigma and lack of support services; and serious financial losses. Women's perceptions of their children's needs in the divorce process, mothers' responsibilities in relation to those needs, and the responsibility of social institutions to support mothers as parents were also examined. The study sought mothers' views about needed changes to the legal framework of child custody determination and other priorities. Implications for socio-legal policy are discussed, including a consideration of a rebuttable legal shared parental responsibility presumption as facilitating the most salutary postdivorce outcomes for women and children, as are guidelines for direct service provision.     

Reciprocity in relationships: socio-economic and health influences on intergenerational exchanges between Third Age parents and their adult children in Great Britain

In this paper data from a nationally representative British longitudinal study are used to analyse exchanges of support between Third Age parents (aged 55-75) and their adult children. Results show that between two thirds and three quarters of parents in this age group were involved in some sort of exchange relationship with at least one of their children. Generally, more Third Age parents were providers than recipients of help, but there was a strong reciprocal element to intergenerational exchange with, for example, married parents who provided support to at least one child being twice as likely as those who did not to receive support from a child, after allowance for a range of relevant parental and child characteristics. Parental characteristics associated with higher probability of providing help included higher income, home ownership and being married or widowed rather than divorced. Higher income and home ownership were, however, negatively associated with odds of receiving help from a child, again after adjustment for other co-variates, suggesting socio-economic differences in the balance of support exchanges. Children seem responsive to parental needs in that receipt of help from a child was positively associated with older parental age and with parental disability. The paper shows that in Britain, as in the USA, the balance of intergenerational exchanges involving Third Age adults is downward rather than upward, in contravention of depictions of older adults as 'burdens' on younger generations. Current demographic and social changes are, it is argued, likely to increase support demands from adult children to Third Age parents in coming decades.     

Deadbeat dads or inept states? A comparison of child support enforcement systems.

This article provides information on the effectiveness of state child support enforcement systems. We use individual level data from the Child Support Supplements of the Current Population Surveys (1978-1992) to create an index of state effectiveness that captures success at securing child support awards, setting award levels, and collecting obligations. We identify states that were performing above or below the national average in the late 1980s to early 1990s and states that showed substantial improvement or decline in child support effectiveness during the 1980s. Identifying successful states will help researchers to determine what policies and practices are associated with successful enforcement. These variations in state effectiveness also suggest that low levels of child support are not due to deadbeat dads alone but also to inept states.     

Parental Divorce and Children From Diverse Backgrounds: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Mental Health,Parent–Child Relationships,and Educational Experiences

This article utilizes multidisciplinary perspectives to examine the developmental outcomes of divorce for children from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. The authors present a literature review on the outcomes of divorce in terms of mental health, family relationships, and educational achievement for children by focusing on discipline-specific aspects of divorce in sociology, education, and family studies. Furthermore, this study builds on previous literature by examining parental divorce among children with special needs. A discussion of changes in family structure and child outcomes concludes this study with implications for policy and practice to support current population.     

Long-run economic consequences of child support enforcement for the middle class

The purpose of this research is to examine the economic impact of child support transfers for middle-income custodial and noncustodial parent over a 15-year period. We have a substantial amount of research on low-income families, but little research about middle-income families. This research is based on computer simulations using income and expenditure data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) tables prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The results of the simulations challenge the majority of research that proposes that women suffer far more than men after family dissolution. Instead, we conclude that it is the noncustodial parent, usually the father, who suffers the most. In every case and for every income, according to our analyses, the payer of child support is never able to cover household expenditures if paying child support at guideline levels. By reducing the standard of living to the next lowest income category, in some cases to a level below the custodial parent’s, the parent owing child support is able to make child support payments and cover consumer expenditures. We use exchange and choice theories to analyze the economic alternatives in making a decision to divorce and consequently propose that public support for strict child support enforcement may encourage middle-income women to seek divorce. Micro-level decisions, we argue, have macro-level economic and social consequences for the middle-income parents.     

The Impact of Divorce

This study sought to determine if the often described differences in the child-rearingpractices of divorced and married mothers are related to the father's absence, or if they are largely related to the low income which so often occurs with divorce. Seventy-two mothers varying along the dimensions of father absence, income, number of children, and sex of the target child were interviewed. The resultssuggest that income is a key factor; child-rearing practices were more restrictive and demanding at the lower but not at the higher income levels. Additional effects were found when child-rearing practices were analyzed by sex of child and number of children.     

Housing problems experienced by recipients of child welfare services

This study uses data on the experiences of families involved with child welfare services to examine the nature of housing problems and needs among these families and whether housing status affects case outcomes. First, the article describes the housing difficulties faced by two distinct child welfare service populations: families receiving voluntary in-home services and families with children in court-ordered out-of-home care. Second, the study demonstrates the relationship between housing problems and the likelihood of family reunification for children in out-of-home care. The findings have implications for the delivery of child welfare services and the provision of housing assistance to low-income families with children.     

Variables Associated with Positive Treatment Outcomes for Children Surviving Sexual Abuse

This exploratory study examined variables associated with positive treatment outcomes for 47 children who received sexual abuse treatment. Variables associated with a higher percentage of treatment objectives accomplished were: services provided to the pre-adolescent child; child resided at home; perpetrator was criminally charged; support by non-offending caretaker currently and at disclosure; individual, family and group therapy were provided, and termination of services was planned. Variables associated with a positive placement outcome were: services provided to the pre-adolescent child; abuse did not involve body penetration; child resided at home; child was never removed from home; services were not court-ordered; and termination was planned. A higher percentage of applicable treatment objectives accomplished was significantly correlated with a positive placement outcome.