Understanding Women's Sexualities and Sexual Orientations: An Introduction

Researchers and theorists who attempt to generalize about sexuality and sexual orientation in both men and women simultaneously often take male experiences as the norm and ignore unique aspects of women's lives. The purpose of this issue is to focus attention on scientific research and theory about aspects of women's sexualities, with special emphasis on sexual orientation. A new paradigm is presented that recognizes the great diversity of women's erotic experiences and the many sociocultural factors that shape women's sexuality and sexual orientation across the lifespan. This introductory article highlights major themes and provides a brief summary of the articles in the issue. Four central topics are discussed: (1) the complexnature of women's sexualities and sexual orientations; (2) the importance of historical, social, and cultural contexts for adequately understanding women's sexualities; (3) the development of sexual orientation in women; and (4) implications for research and policy.     

Biological Research on Women's Sexual Orientations: Evaluating the Scientific Evidence

The importance of biological influences on sexual orientation is hotly debated. This article summarizes public opinions about the causes of sexual orientations and documents shifts over time toward greater endorsement of biological rather than environmental explanations. Next, empirical evidence concerning neuroendocrine and genetic explanations of women's sexual orientation is reviewed. Currently, there is no convincing evidence that biological factors are a determining influence on women's sexual orientations. In some research areas, the data on women are incomplete. In areas where adequate research is available, studies on women do not conclusively support biological hypotheses. Implications of these findings are considered.     

Theorizing Sexuality, Sexual Abuse and Residential Children's Homes: Adding Gender to the Equation

This article is primarily concerned with emphasizing the importanceof gender in relation to understanding and responding to sexualityand sexual abuse/exploitation issues within residential children’shomes. Initially, past research and inquiry reports are analysedand evaluated, not only in relation to their overall conclusionsand recommendations, but also with regard to their consideration,misrepresentation or omission of gender issues. A theoreticalframework is then drawn up which takes into account historicaldebates and contestations around notions of gender. This illustrateshow gender is frequently conflated or merged with understandingsabout sex and sexuality. This theoretical conceptualizationis then extended to consider the effects of the social constructionof childhood and childhood sexuality, and how sex, gender andsexuality may commonly be represented and understood withinorganizational, public-sphere contexts. Important findings froma recent indepth qualitative research project focused on sexualityissues in children’s homes are then presented thematicallyand through narrative excerpts. These findings are also locatedwithin and made comprehensible in relation to the theoreticalframework previously constructed. The conclusion examines theimplications of the findings presented and their theorization,and briefly evaluates the usefulness of recent policy initiativesintended to improve the care and development of ‘lookedafter’ children.     

Sexual Orientation and Sex in Women's Lives: Conceptual and Methodological Issues

Use of such categorical terms as heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian is widespread, yet research indicates that sexuality is a multidimensional phenomenon. Sexual behavior, identity, and desire are not highly intercorrelated for women, and this has implications for new ways of conceptualizing sexual orientation. Furthermore, the multifaceted nature of sexual orientation has implications for conceptualizing sexual activity and sexual desire for women. Some methodological issues are presented for future research on female sexual orientation, including a better understanding of gender and a more multifaceted approach to sexual orientation.     

Culture and Women's Sexualities

Anthropological studies of women's same-sex relations in non-Western societies provide an important source for theorizing women's sexuality because they allow us to go beyond a narrow focus on Western cultures and concepts. Looking at studies from groups other than the dominant societies of Europe and America, I explore the diversity of women's sexualities and the sociocultural factors that produce sexual beliefs and practices. This article argues that sexual practices take their meaning from particular cultures and their beliefs about the self and the world. Cultural systems of gender, in particular, construct different sexual beliefs and practices for men and women. I conclude the article by suggesting some broad patterns at work in the production of women's sexualities across cultures.     

Explaining Diversityin the Development of Same-Sex Sexuality Among Young Women

This article summarizes findings from two ongoing studies charting the development of 167 adolescent and young adult sexual-minority women. Resultsdocument considerable variation in the quality, relative distribution, and context of women's same-sex and other-sex attractions. Furthermore, contrary to conventional wisdom, the timing of a woman's first same-sex attractions is not systematically related to subsequent features of sexual identity development. Rather, the quality and context of a woman'searly attractions and behavior is more important. We argue that variability in sexual-minority and heterosexual women's development is best explained by interactions between personal characteristics and environmental contexts, and we urge future studies of the sexual-minority life course to include women with same-sex attractions that do not identify as lesbian or bisexual.     

Seeing Is Believing: Research on Women's Sexual Orientation and Public Policy

In this commentary, Sheila Kuehl, the first openly lesbian or gay person to be elected to the California State Legislature, addresses the interface among science, social issues, and public policy in the arena of women's sexual orientation. She emphasizes the value of scientific research and analysis in informing policy makers, identifies specific ways that social scientists can influence policy makers, and suggests areas that would benefit from continuing and expanded research.     

Afterword

In this final commentary, former Journal of Social Issues Editor Jacqueline Goodchilds discusses the role that JSI has played in giving visibility to psychological research on gender, sexuality, and sexual orientation. She encourages readers not to ignore the sexuality of older women.     

Unique Challenges of Transgender Aging: Implications From the Literature

Transgender elders are both underserved and understudied. Neither the etiology nor prevalence of transgender is well understood. Because sex, gender, and sexuality are at the very core of individual identity, it is difficult to dislodge one's ideas and feelings about them. Unlike biological sex and sexual orientation, gender has several aspects: gender identity, gender expression, and gender classification. A discussion of the terminology of transgender is presented, and the issues facing aging transgender individuals are identified. Although the challenges of adequate healthcare, social support, and legal obstacles are faced by many elderly individuals, the way they are presented and managed are unique to this often invisible group.     

性别排挤与农村女性土地承包权益的救济

基于男尊女卑的性别歧视与社会排挤,农村女性的土地承包权益往往遭到剥夺与侵害.这不仅严重影响了男女平等原则的实施进程,而且严重制约了女性的生存权和发展权的充分实现.探究女性土地承包权益弱化的现状、后果及原因,有助于摸索、建构救济女性土地承包权益的宏观路径与制度模式,进而为维护女性土地承包权益提供程序法、实体法和伦理观的救济基础.     

Discourses of blame: deconstructing (hetero)sexuality, peer sexual violence and residential children's homes

Little research exists on sexuality and residential care, even less that position gender inequality as a central analytical component. This paper, based on a wider research project that focused on children’s and young people’s experiences of peer violence within residential care, seeks to help redress this disparity. The main aim of this paper is to explore how (hetero)sexuality, discourses of blame and male peer sexual violence are constructed and interrelated in residential child care. Young people’s and staff’s conceptualizations, evaluations and experiences are compared and contrasted to illuminate the range of discourses surrounding sexuality and sexual violence operating within residential settings. Findings relating to female culpability for male violence, normative male violence, female duplicity and challenges to traditional gender roles will be presented, and contextualized, in relation to previous studies. In addition, some broader implications of the research findings for residential practice are explored.     

“Female Virginity Complex” Untied: Young Chinese Women's Experience of Virginity Loss and Sexual Coercion

This article selects the critical moment of virginity loss in young Beijing women's lives to look at the meaning of sexual coercion in dating relationships. The authors observed that many young Chinese women presented their first experience of sex as containing some elements of sexual coercion that were being described as “minor,” do not involve obvious physical force, but are unpleasant and regretful experiences of virginity loss. This article contributes to a new understanding of virginity loss and sexual coercion in China and sheds light on the social transformation of sexuality from the Maoist era to the postsocialist era. Implications for social work practice and research in China are also discussed.     

Social change and stress in Estonia

The article attempts to assess social stress in Estonia at this time of transformation. The hypothesized model of social stress is based on the stress and coping model of Lazarus & Folkman and Borden and is applied as a frame of reference to the investigation. One thousand adult respondents from the Household Budget Survey were involved in the survey in March and April 1993. The factor analysis revealed 4 factors that determined coping with stress: frustration, passivity, happiness and future orientation. Cluster analysis of the respondents confirmed that 41% of the men's and 30% of the women's samples represented groups of risk of higher levels of distress. The findings provide support for the hypothesized model of social stress and indicate that multiple social change is the central source of stress for people living in Estonia.     

Defining the boundaries: social worker assessment of sexual abuse in a cultural context – multivariate analysis of personal and professional factors influencing social workers' labelling of intimacy behaviour

To explore personal and professional factors influencing social worker assessment of family intimacy behaviour in diverse cultural groups, a 27‐item questionnaire was mailed to a random, stratified sample of MSW‐level social workers. The instrument measured rank‐order responses to 10 questions about attitudes towards public exposure to sexual stimuli and rank‐order responses to questions about three vignettes depicting culturally informed family intimacy behaviour. The instrument also measured sample characteristics such as area of social work practice and per cent of caseload involving sexually abused as well as diverse clients. Completed questionnaires (n = 387) were analysed for association between respondents' definition of intimacy behaviour (dependent variable), attitude towards sexual stimuli, and intervening variables thought to explain variance in the dependent measure. Labelling theory provided a basis for hypotheses testing. When mean attitude scores were correlated with mean definition scores, Pearson's r returned a significant low, positive association between conservative attitudes towards exposure to sexual stimuli and definitions of cross‐cultural scenarios as sexual abuse. Holding attitude scores constant, regression modelling of the sample's definition of scenarios indicated that practice area, minority status, and per cent of caseload with sexual abuse clients were significant predictors of R² change in the dependent variable. Further analysis of data through regression tree modelling showed that a small group of conservative practitioners with ethnically diverse caseloads were more likely to label culturally influenced behaviours as deviant. Among conservative practitioners with less diverse caseloads, number of hours in sexuality training had a moderating influence on deviancy labelling. Tree modelling of the data also indicated that an ethnic minority subgroup within the sample accounted for the lowest ranking of scenarios as sexual abuse. Results support earlier work on social worker assessment of child maltreatment as a function of agency setting. Another implication for social work is the need for practitioners to understand their attitudes towards human sexuality in relation to assessment of diverse patterns of childhood sexual socialization.     

Migration and Sexuality: A Comparison of Mexicans in Sending and Receiving Communities

The reconstruction of sexuality after migration is a central dimension of immigrant health and an integral part of the process of adaptation and incorporation. Despite its significance there is little quantitative information measuring the changes in sexual behavior accompanying migration. This article contributes to the literature connecting immigrant adaptation and health risks by comparing sexual practices and attitudes among Mexicans in Durham, NC, and Mexican sending communities. Consistent with a social constructivist approach to sexuality we show that compared to nonmigrants, Mexicans residing in the United States exhibit heightened exposure to risk, including casual and, among men, commercial partners. The enhanced risks associated with migration vary systematically by gender and marital status and are accompanied by variation in attitudes toward sexuality, with the U.S. context associated with higher tolerance for infidelity and biological explanations of sexuality. We discuss the implications for immigrant adaptation and health policies in the United States and abroad.     

The New “Bridge to Adulthood”: Searching for Meaning and Cohesion in the Nexus of “Hook-ups,” Internet Porn,and Instant Messages

The transition from adolescence to young adulthood has sometimes been referred to as the “bridge to young adulthood.” This period is critically important for consolidating identity and for developing a deeper capacity for sexual and nonsexual intimacy. However, widening reliance on cyber technology, social media websites, and instant text messaging, in combination with newly emerging patterns of sexual relations and recreational drug and alcohol use, has complicated the navigation of the developmental transition to young adulthood. We review psychoanalytic theory pertaining to the transition from adolescence to adulthood with a focus on Erikson’s theory of psychosexual/psychosocial epigenesis in order to explicate the developmental tasks specific to this transition. This developmental stage will also be examined through the lens of developmental neurobiology. Recent theorizing on Internet-mediated sexuality will be discussed as it relates to the case studies presented. Case material will demonstrate difficulties with the transition to adulthood, manifested in part-object relating, and the use of cyber-mediated and compulsive sexuality to resolve dysphoric self-states.     

Gender, Status, and Leadership

More than a trait of individuals, gender is an institutionalized system of social practices. The gender system is deeply entwined with social hierarchy and leadership because gender stereotypes contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women. This review uses expectation states theory to describe how gender status beliefs create a network of constraining expectations and interpersonal reactions that is a major cause of the "glass ceiling." In mixed-sex or gender-relevant contexts, gender status beliefs shape men's and women's assertiveness, the attention and evaluation their performances receive, ability attributed to them on the basis of performance, the influence they achieve, and the likelihood that they emerge as leaders. Gender status beliefs also create legitimacy reactions that penalize assertive women leaders for violating the expected status order and reduce their ability to gain complaince with directives.