The exchange of nonverbal intimacy: A critical review of dyadic models

This article examines six different theoretical approaches that attempt to explain the exchange of dyadic immediacy, intimacy, or involvement cues. Affiliative conflict or equilibrium theory, two expectancy norm models, an arousal-labeling model, an arousal valence model, a discrepancy-arousal model, and a sequential functional model are summarized. Advantages and limitations of each of these approaches are discussed, and empirical support for each of these approaches is summarized.     

Nonverbal intimacy: Clarifying the role of seating distance and orientation

Two studies clarify how distance and orientation affect intimacy in seating arrangements. Previous research had examined only observer-defined intimacy, used questionnaires to represent seating arrangement, or confounded distance and orientation. Study 1, a re-analysis of classic data, indicated that traditional conclusions regarding the joint role of distance and orientation as determinants of intimacy were unwarranted. Study 2 systematically varied distance and orientation in a live interaction and examined actor-defined intimacy. Actors' judgments of the intimacy of the seating arrangements were strongly related to distance, but not to orientation. This was true regardless of actors' level of sociability. These findings are discussed in terms of Patterson's (1983) functional approach to nonverbal behavior.     

Arousal and Gambling Mode Preference: A Review of the Literature

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature examining subjective and physiological arousal associated with an individual’s preferred modes of gambling. Arousal is hypothesised to play a central role in the onset and maintenance of problem gambling. Most studies have failed to differentiate relevant patterns of arousal elicited by stimuli associated with preferred versus non-preferred modes of gambling on the assumption that similar processes motivate all gamblers. At the conceptual level, sub-typing theories of problem gambling propose differences in the motivation to gamble, and the associated role arousal plays in maintaining behaviours. A review of the existing literature reveals preliminary findings that indicate that gamblers respond differentially to preferred compared to non-preferred gambling stimuli, and that gamblers may display greater reactivity in arousal to gambling cues compared to non-gamblers. Understanding differences in such patterns of arousal can be used to inform clinical interventions by effectively targeting the nature and role of arousal associated with preferred modes of gambling, and determining the extent to which non-preferred modes act as secondary reinforces triggering by gambling urges.     

Solitude and intimacy: Linking territoriality and privacy experiences

The further advancement of privacy models depends upon clarifying two issues: the relationship between privacy and territoriality and the degree to which different types of privacy have distinct behavioral and cognitive correlates. Two types of privacy experiences—solitude and intimacy—were investigated. Given the divergent function of these two forms of privacy, we expected each would be sought in different types of territories. We also expected that where people seek a form of privacy depends in part upon the quality of the immediate social environment: a territory will be used less for privacy experiences as the understandings that regulate usage of the space erode. Students were asked where they went for solitude, where they went for intimacy, and to describe their experiences in these two places. Results supported the hypotheses. In addition, a substantial and coequal linkage between privacy and territoriality appeared. A two-step process describing this linkage was suggested. Implications of the findings for a more precise conceptualization of privacy behaviors were explored.Portions of a prior version of this paper were presented at the annual meetings of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, 1978. This research was carried out while the first author was affiliated with Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Research funds were provided by a small grant award from the Office of the Dean of Arts and Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The authors are indebted to Ed Krupat and Eric Sundstrom for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Negotiating the boundaries of intimacy: the personal lives of asexual people

This paper uses findings from research diaries to explore the use of practices of intimacy among asexual people. While much of the literature to date has focused on the supposedly transformative and political nature of uniquely asexual practices of intimacy, our findings suggest something different. Rather than seeking to transform the nature of intimate relationships, asexual people make pragmatic adjustments and engage in negotiations to achieve the forms of physical and emotional intimacy they seek. We discuss this in relation to three areas: friendships, sex as a practice of intimacy, and exclusion from intimacy. Our findings suggest the importance of not only considering the social context in which asexual people practise intimacy, but also how the practices in which they engage may be shared with non‐asexual people.     

Building cultural intelligence through supervisor support: Social exchange and subjective career success as mediators and organisational support as a moderator

This study offers a new perspective on how organisational factors influence migrant workers' cultural intelligence (CQ) by examining a moderated mediation model of the mechanism underlying the relationship between perceived supervisor support and CQ. We tested our model using a survey on a sample of 462 migrants. We found that employees' social exchange and subjective career success mediated the relationship between their perceptions of supervisor support and CQ. Furthermore, perceived organisational support moderated the social exchange–CQ relationship, and this relationship was stronger among workers with perceived high organisational support than for those with perceptions of low support. We also found that the indirect effect of employees' perceived supervisor support on CQ via social exchange was stronger for those with perceived high organisational support than for those with perceptions of low support. This study contributes to a better understanding of factors that foster migrant workers' abilities to navigate diverse workplaces.     

Gender differences in the initiation and attribution of tactile intimacy

Cultural norms may restrict the demonstration of intimacy between men, such that male adults are relatively unlikely (in comparison to females) to display affection in public by hugging or putting hands around one another's waists. Study 1 examined via a role playing technique how the gender composition of a dyad and types of friendship influence tactile greetings. Males displayed less physical intimacy with male friends than with female (platonic or dating) friends and less than females displayed with their same-sex friends. Study 2 examined subjects' perceptions of and attributions about reciprocal touch. Male-male behavior was rated as less normal as a function of the level of physical touch (going from no touch, hugging, to arms around the waist). The normalcy rating of opposite-sex pairs did not vary as a function of the touch manipulation, but female, same-sex pairs' behavior was rated as less normal in the arms around the waist than in either the no touch or hug conditions. In the male same-sex pairs, hugging was seen as more likely to reflect a sexual relationship than no touch, while arms around one another's waist was rated as even more likely to represent a sexual relationship. It was suggested that homophobia, the fear of appearing or being homosexual, may operate to inhibit physical intimacy between men.     

Nonverbal intimacy,sex, and compliance: A field study

The present study was designed to explore further the effects of nonverbal behaviors and sex on compliance. Male and female subjects who had just found a dime in a phone booth were approached by a male or female experimenter and were asked to return the dime that the experimenter had supposedly just lost. In the Eye Contact condition, the experimenter gazed at the subject as the request was made, whereas in the No-Eye Contact condition he/she did not. In addition, the experimenter lightly touched half of the subjects while making his/her request, but did not touch the other half. Replicating previous findings, it was found that both eye contact (significantly) and touching (marginally) produced increased rates of compliance. Extending prior results, these effects were obtained for male experimenters. Furthermore, a Sex of experimenter times Sex of subject interaction effect was obtained, such that subjects were much more willing to comply with the request of an opposite, rather than same sex experimenter. Questionnaire data suggested that: 1) subjects were aware of the touch, but not of the eye contact variable, and 2) the requesters were perceived as much more attractive when they were of the opposite, rather than the same sex as the subjects.     

False intimacy: close-ups and viewer involvement in wildlife films1

This essay explores the uses of the close-up shot in wildlife films and television shows, raising important questions about the scientific truth value of visual narratives that use this camera technique common in fictional films and television. The close-up shot creates a false intimacy between the human audience and the animal subjects, and among the dangerous results of the technique is the impression that animals have human-like thoughts and emotional responses. While this identification of humans with animals might provide the basis for successful political, economic and social action on behalf of animal welfare, use of the technique raises several important ethical questions regarding the representation of nature and science.     

The accomplishment of intimacy in the jail visiting room

An essential feature, and perhaps the harshest reality, of incarceration is the physical separation of the prisoner from those with whom he or she would ordinarily interact—a separation which often puts familial and friendship ties in jeopardy. In light of this, prison administrators, citizens' advisory commissions and government agencies have become aware of the rehabilitative benefits of prisoner contact with outsiders. Despite such thinking and the institution of various forms of visitation, effective procedures are difficult to attain in large metropolitan jails. This paper, based on observations in a county jail located in a large, western city, argues that the desired level of intimacy exhibited during a visitor-prisoner conversation is directly related to the importance of the visitor-prisoner relationship as a topic of conversation. Furthermore, the conversation itself becomes an effective experience for those visitors and prisoners for whom their sexual relationship becomes a topic of high priority. The author wishes to thank Murray Davis, Bennett Berger and Fred Davis for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

The rise of chemsex: queering collective intimacy in neoliberal London

Since 2011, various public health organizations have observed the growth of the sexual practice ‘chemsex’ in the UK, primarily in London. The term chemsex refers to group sexual encounters between gay and bisexual men in which the recreational drugs GHB/GBL, mephedrone and crystallized methamphetamine are consumed. This article uses a conjunctural perspective to make sense of the rise of chemsex within the historical conditions in which it has emerged. Drawing on a document analysis as well as interviews with 15 gay and bisexual men, this article argues that the rise of chemsex can be interpreted as an embodied response to material conditions shaped by neoliberalism: specifically as a desire for an intimate mode of collectivity during a historical moment when collectivity itself is being superseded by competitive individualism as the privileged mode of being in the world (Gilbert, J. [2013]. Common ground: democracy and collectivity in an Age of individualism. London: Pluto Press). In doing so, this article provides a different account to pathologizing media and medical representations of chemsex that appeared in 2015, whilst also contributing to a growing literature that attempts to map the balance of forces of the present conjuncture.     

Reactions to interperson distance and topic intimacy: A comparison of strangers and friends

An experiment was conducted to test certain theoretical predictions derived from theories proposed by Hall (1966) and by Sundstrom and Altman (1976). Forty-five opposite-sex pairs discussed either a high, medium, or low intimacy topic while standing facing each other at either an intimate (30 cm), personal (60 cm), or social (165 cm) interperson distance. Following discussion, participants rated their reactions to the interperson distance on several dimensions. The results provided no support for the hypothesis, inferred from Hall's theory, that subjects would prefer an interperson distance that corresponded to topic intimacy. Ratings of feelings about the interpersondistance revealed a nonlinear relationship between rated feelings and interperson distance that is partially in accord with expectations derived from Sundstrom and Altman's theory, although there were some inconsistent findings.     

'Til death do us part: intimacy and sexuality in the marriages of Alzheimer's patients.

1. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is likely to have a significant effect on sexual behavior, but both patient and partner will still have sexual feelings and needs. 2. Research has shown that a high proportion of men with AD develop erection problems, but causes of their erection difficulties are not understood. 3. Research has shown that inappropriate sexual behavior in AD patients is uncommon, although it can be very troubling to the family and health-care provider if it occurs. 4. More professionals need to be trained to discuss sexual issues openly and sensitively with AD patients and partners and to offer useful clinical suggestions.     

Effects of nonverbal intimacy on arousal and behavioral adjustment

The effects of two intimacy manipulations, 80% eye contact (EC) and combined lean, touch, 50% eye contact (LT), were examined in a bogus waiting period involving a male confederate-male subject pairing. Hypothesized arousal increase was found only for the LT manipulation when it occurred later, rather than earlier, in the waiting period. Associated with that increased arousal were weak tendencies for increased eye contact and talking. These results offered limited support for the arousal model of interpersonal intimacy (Patterson, 1976). However, it also appeared that the directing effect of the specific social context qualified the impact and meaning of the confederate's high intimacy.The authors thank Larry Halligan and Joan Naylor for their assistance in conducting this experiment and also Bill Ickes for his constructive comments.This project was completed under National Institute of Health grant, USPH RO1 MH 32386 01 awarded to the first author.