Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race,Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice by Christine Ward Gailey

ABSTRACT

We investigated the adjustment of differing sized adoptive families rearing children with developmental disabilities. Families of 5 or more children (large: n = 54) were compared with families of 4 or fewer children (conventional: n = 69) on a variety of demographic and outcome variables measuring family strengths, family disharmony, marital adjustment, and adjustment to the adopted child. Analyses of covariance on the outcome variables demonstrated that parents of large families were functioning as well or better than parents of conventional-sized families. We concluded that adoption placement practice should not exhibit bias against the placement of multiple children with developmental disabilities in the same family.     

A Comparative Analysis of Adoptive Family Functioning with Gay,Lesbian, and Heterosexual Parents and Their Children

Abstract

The objectives of this comparative study were to examine adoptive family functioning with a sample of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual adoptive parents and their children. The results suggested that parent sexual orientation is not a significant predictor of adoptive family functioning, adopted child's behavior, and parent's perceptions of helpfulness from family support networks. Furthermore, a regression analysis suggested the following variables were associated with higher levels of family functioning: adoptive parents who were previously foster parents and children who had more previous placements prior to adoption. Lower family functioning was associated with children adopted through CPS; with children who had mental health diagnoses, learning disorders, or other handicapping conditions; and with children who were in a higher grade in school. The results of this comparative study of adoptive families support the need for more methodologically rigorous research that includes gay and lesbian adoptive parents along with heterosexual parents.     

Transracial Adoption of Children with Developmental Disabilities

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities. Thirty-four families who had adopted a child transracially were compared with 63 families who had adopted a child inracially; additionally, we compared adoptions in 13 families who had adopted both transracially and inracially. The adjustment of mothers and fathers was gauged separately at three time points using measures of depression, stress, family strengths, and subjective well-being. Results indicated few differences in functioning between transracial and inracial adoptive parents. Mothers in both conditions maintained low depression scores and comparable means on all other outcome variables. Fathers also revealed similar adjustment patterns despite adoption type. Thus, parents experience both short- and long-term positive outcomes from the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities.     

Attachment,Affective Responsiveness,and Cohesion in Adoptive Families: Child and Parent Perspectives

Some adoptive families are at risk for problems in family functioning. This study investigated the extent to which attachment to parents and affective responsiveness of the family predicted family cohesion and satisfaction with the adoptive family from both the child's and the parent's perspectives. Using a sample of 50 adopted children and their parents, our findings indicated that attachment to mother was salient in predicting children's perceptions of family cohesion and satisfaction with their adoptive family. Parental ratings of affective responsiveness of the family predicted parents' evaluation of family cohesion and their satisfaction with the adoption. As hypothesized, children and parents differed in their ratings of the cohesion and affective responsiveness of their family, with children reporting lower levels of these constructs than parents. Implications for practitioners and directions for future research are discussed.     

The impact of family structure on the adjustment of adopted children.

Psychological and academic adjustments were assessed in a group of 130 adopted children (six to 12 years of age) living in five different family constellations: only children, children with younger adopted siblings only, children with younger biological siblings only, children with older adopted siblings only, and children with older biological siblings only. Few differences were found from one cluster to another, suggesting that family structure, while complicating the dynamics of adoptive family life, plays a minor role in adoption adjustment.     

Factors affecting post-permanency adjustment for children in adoption or guardianship placements: An ecological systems analysis

Despite a growing body of research on post-permanency adjustment for children adopted from public child welfare agencies, many studies lack a systematic review using a theoretical framework. To develop promising post-permanency services for adopted children with special needs and their families, the first step is to examine risk and protective factors affecting adoption or guardianship adjustment. This study systematically reviews and synthesizes current empirical studies investigating post-permanency outcomes using an ecological systems analysis, with an integration of family theories. A search of five electronic databases and relevant child welfare books identified 36 empirical studies on post-permanency adjustment. Risk factors include some individual factors such as caring for a child with special needs, raising children with a multiple placement or maltreatment history and involving parents with no parenting experience. Living in a family experiencing boundary ambiguity and lacking social support are also risk factors. Protective factors include having adoption preparation and having a child living with married parents, as well as a high level of adoption openness and the availability of formal and informal social support. Implications for child welfare practice and policy also are discussed.     

Behavioral and Socioemotional Adjustment in International Adoptees: A Comparison Between Italian and Spanish Adoptive Parents’ Reports

Dominated by intracultural comparisons between adopted and nonadopted children, adoption research has until now paid little attention to cross-cultural differences in the adoptees’ behavioral and socioemotional adjustment. The present study is aimed at comparing children adopted in two different countries—Italy and Spain—and at verifying, through their parents’ perceptions, the extent to which cultural context may contribute to shaping children's emotional and behavioral problems. A sample of 207 international adoptees (127 Italian and 80 Spanish) aged between 6 and 14 years was studied. The children's adjustment was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist, which was filled out by the adoptive parents. Results indicated the presence of more similarities than differences between Italian and Spanish subjects: children adopted both in Italy and Spain between 3 and 5 years old were more likely to exhibit behavior problems than were children who entered the adoptive family at any other age. Some differences related to the birth country also emerged.     

Post-adoption service need and access: Differences between international,kinship and non-kinship foster care

Post-adoption services are important to bolster a family's commitment to their adopted children, thus avoiding potential problems following adoption finalization. It is vitally important to assess post-adoption services in an effort to ensure families are provided with effective supports for successful family functioning. Few investigators have assessed service needs and access according to adoptive family type. This study focuses on international, foster care kin and foster care non-kin adoption types. Utilizing the National Survey of Adoptive Parents, this research investigated twelve post-adoption services. Two comparisons were made with respect to whether, according to the adoptive parents, post-adoption services were received or not received: 1) international and foster care non-kin adoptive families; and 2) foster care kin and foster non-kin adoptive families. International non-kin families were more likely to indicate they discussed post-adoption services than foster care non-kin families, particularly among those who were white, had adopted boys, had no other children in the home, and whose socio-economic background was lower. When comparing foster care non-kin families with kinship families, non-kin families tended to receive more desired services than kinship families, with kinship families indicating less need for services. Policy efforts and program design need to focus on reaching out to families and developing effective post-adoption services based on the expressed needs of families.     

Young Adult and Parent Perceptions of Facilitation: Associations with Overparenting,Family Functioning,and Student Adjustment

Overparenting occurs when parents engage in developmentally inappropriate involvement in their children’s lives. This topic is salient in the context of young adults attending college, as this developmental stage necessitates independent decision-making and adjustment on the part of these students. At the same time, the turbulence involved in this transition might engender parental interference and facilitation that could impact young adults’ adjustment and perceived family functioning. This study used structural equation modeling to examine overparenting, perceived interference, facilitation, student adjustment, and family functioning in 302 parent–young adult dyads. Results indicated that overparenting was associated with facilitation, but not interference. Whereas this association was negative for young adults, it was positive for parents. This pattern was also reflected in the indirect effects of overparenting on student adjustment through young adults’ versus parents’ perceived facilitation. Young adults appear to have better outcomes when they perceive their parents to be facilitating their goals.     

Social competence in Russian post-institutionalized children: A comparison of adopted and non-adopted children

The study examined the social skills of 92 Russian children (males = 64) adopted by Italian families. The children, aged between 8 and 14 years, were compared with a control group of children who grew up with the biological family. Evaluation by both parents and children of the children's social competence were investigated. The results showed that, according to the parents' reports, the adopted children had more problems in social functioning than peers in the control group, along with a greater propensity to use maladaptive behaviors such as Oppositive Behavior, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Aggressive Behavior and Externalization. By contrast, according to the children's assessments, the adopted children were less aggressive and used prosocial behaviors to a greater extent than children raised in the biological family. The views of the parents and the children about the children's aggressive behavior were mutually conflicting.Finally, the influence of adoption related variables on the social competence of children was examined. Contrary to our expectations, there were no significant relationships between social competence and age of adoption, the duration of institutionalization and the time spent in the adoptive family.     

The postadoption experience: child, parent, and family predictors of family adjustment to adoption

Eighteen to 24 months after they adopted children in state custody, 159 parents were surveyed regarding their postadoption experiences. Most children remained with their new families, with parents reporting the adoption experience to be "about as hard as expected," and rating the past year of caring for the child as being more "smooth" than "stressful." Parents saw how the child contributed positively to their lives, were less positive about available social supports, and expressed dissatisfaction with the speed of the adoption, the availability of community supports, and the ability to link with supports. Children's special needs (e.g., older age at adoption) were predictive of postplacement adjustment.     

The International Adoption Experience: Do They Live Happily Ever After?

This study presents the perspective of parents who adopted children internationally and their now adult adopted children regarding the impact of international adoption on their lives. Areas explored include adaptation of the child and family, challenges experienced along the way, influence on various aspects of their lives, parent-child relationship, rewards and regrets associated with the adoption experience, recommendations for those considering international adoptions, and an adjective that would describe their journey. The outcome illuminates the success of international adoptions and the life-changing bond that is formed when parents and children transcend all boundaries to form a family to call their own.     

ETHNIC IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONALLY ADOPTED CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR FAMILY THERAPISTS

The life story of the internationally adopted child tends to be an emotional one. How the story is tole and retold in the family can have lasting consequences for the child's adjustment and well-being. In telling the story, parents are faced with a qunique challenge: To what extent is it desirable to encourage their children, who adready struggle with identity issue related to adoption, to identify with their cultures of origin? Therapists working on these issues with multiethnic adoptive families can find little guidance in the family systems literature. To fill this gap, the present article reviews the literature on racial/ethnic identity development and the available research on ethnic identification, self-esteem, and the psychological adjustment of cross-ethnically adopted children and adolescents. Implications for practice include developmental considerations, identifying chldren and families at risk, and recommendations for those in need of intervention.     

The Ethnic Identification of Same-Race Children in Intercountry Adoption

Intercountry adoption is a worldwide phenomenon that has been drawing an ever-increasing amount of research attention. The vast majority of that research has focused on transracial adoptive relationships and, in particular, the ethnic socialization and adjustment of children adopted into racially different families. Very little is known about the ethnic identity development of internationally adopted children who are racially similar to their adoptive parents. In the current study, 50 children adopted into New Zealand from Eastern Europe were interviewed on their ethnic self-identification and self-concept. The adoptees scored in the midrange on an ethnic identity scale and in the high range on a self-concept scale. However, no correlation was found between the two indices, suggesting that ethnic self-identification and self-concept operate independent of each other. These results, plus additional data collected during the interviews, are discussed in light of the New Zealand context and as they relate to the transracial adoption literature.     

Mental health and psychological adjustment in adults who were adopted during their childhood: A systematic review

In the two last decades, research of the psychosocial needs of adopted children and adolescents has advanced dramatically. Nevertheless, less is known about their mental health when they reach adulthood. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the evidence about mental health and psychological adjustment in adult adoptees. A systematic search was conducted on Web of Science and PsycInfo. The review includes 27 studies that fulfilled the selection criteria (ages between 20 and 40, domestic adoptions and articles published since 1995). Evidence suggests that psychological adjustment in adult adoptees is more unfavourable (with higher levels of depression, anxiety, personality and behavioural disorders and neuroticism) than in non-adoptees. A small group of studies shows similar psychological adjustment of adoptees and non-adoptees. Moreover, there is evidence that the adopted population is quite heterogeneous, involving individual and contextual variables. There are clear diagnostic differences when gender is taken into account. Some family variables (e.g., attachment, parenting styles) emerge as mediating factors of the effects of the adoptive status on psychological adjustment. Other risk and protective factors have been insufficiently studied (e.g., age at the time of adoption), so additional research is needed.     

Adoptive parents to children with severe developmental disabilities: A profile

A sample of 16 women and men who accompanied their adopted children with severe developmental disabilities to a medical appointment at Henry Ford Hospital's Multidisciplinary Care Clinic during the one-year period beginning July 1, 1988 are described in the context of their parental role vis-a-vis these children. Results of the study are presented through use of a six-part organizational scheme: demographic and social traits of the parents and their adopted children, the adopted children in family context, life satisfactions of the parents, adoption motives, adoption satisfactions, and humanization of the children.     

Preparation for Adoptive Parenthood with a Special-Needs Child

ABSTRACT

Mothers of 86 adopted special-needs children were surveyed regarding the tasks they undertook to prepare for parenthood. They engaged in tasks related to learning about the child most often and stated participating in training to be adoptive to be most helpful. Overall preparedness, more so than either the number or type of adoption preparation tasks (APTS) completed prior to the adoptive placement, was found to be positively associated with assessment of child and family functioning. Implications of these findings for the delivery of adoption preparation programs are discussed.     

Pre-adoption adversities and adoptees' outcomes: The protective role of post-adoption variables in an Italian experience of domestic open adoption

Academics agree that pre-adoption adversities are determining factors in post-adoption adjustment. However, few studies have yet to explore the role of factors intervening in the adoption process and the interplay between the child and adoptive family variables. Specifically, little is known about how the impact of early adversities is moderated by post-adoption factors to produce specific outcomes.The present study concerning domestic adoption explored the adjustment of 37 adolescents and 22 emerging adults (with age ranging between 11 and 18 and 18 and 24 years, respectively), adopted through an Italian form of open adoption, and analyzed the quality of adoptive family relationships and adoptees' attachment as possible moderating variables in the relation between multiple pre-adoptive risk factors and adoptees' outcomes. Pre-adoption stressors were derived from the official adoption files. The Family Environment Scale, Adult Attachment Interview and its modified version for adolescents were used to assess the two possible moderators. Psychological distress and wellbeing were the adoptees' outcomes, with the first being assessed through the Youth Self Report and the Symptom Checklist-90 revised to fit each age group, and the second being assessed through the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Test for the first age group and the Psychological Well-Being Scales, for the second age group. To treat the sample as a whole, the outcome measures were standardized within each group. Results of a path-analytic model with Process showed that the two moderators were significant only in the prediction of adoptees' distress: more specifically, attachment moderated the impact of age of first placement, type of foster care and the presence of biological children in the adoptive family, while the quality of adoptive family relationships moderated the impact of the frequency of birth-family contacts. Overall, the findings support the suggestion that attachment security and good current family relationships can mitigate the negative impact of pre-adoptive stressors on adoptees' later functioning, acting as protective factors.     

Conceptions of Family and Adoption Among Older Adoptees

ABSTRACT

Research on older child adoptions that incorporates the adoptee's perspective is noticeably absent from the literature. Drawing on the theoretical, clinical and empirical literature on children's understanding of family and adoption, this paper reports a study that examined older adoptees' conceptions of family and adoption relative to nonadopted peers. Interviews with 15 children adopted between ages 8 and 11 and a sample of 15 demographically matched nonadopted children (47% male; 84% Caucasian, 13% African American, 3% Biracial Asian/American) provided data that were analyzed for differences in children's understanding and elaboration of family and adoption concepts. Although no group differences were found in children's basic understanding of family or adoption, differences emerged in children's ratings of the acceptability and typicality of family constellations, as well as in the nature of concept elaboration. Older adoptees were more likely to accept and view as typical nontraditional family constellations. Whereas nonadopted children relied more on biological themes, older adoptees' concept elaboration was qualitatively richer, reflecting their varied birth family and foster care experiences. Within-group comparisons among older adoptees revealed differences: Children with more experience in foster care and children who lived in the adoptive home longer displayed higher levels of family understanding and a more realistic perspective of the permanence of the placement. Implications for future research and adoption service delivery are discussed.