Family structure and socio-economic differentials in fertility

Abstract The long standing research on the relation of socio-economic status and fertility has recently given way to a focus on those factors which account for class differentials. Although class differences in fertility seem to be diminishing, the basic relationship remains inverse.(2) In an attempt to explain class differentials in fertility, researchers have begun to look at such variables as age at marriage(3), value orientations(4), and non-fiunilial activity.(5) Bumpass demonstrated that age at marriage is an interaction variable which greatly attenuates the relationship between social class and fertility. He found that the relationship was inverse among women marrying before age 19, but direct among women who were 23 years or older at first marriage. Clifford examined value orientations as an intervening variable in the socio-economic status-fertility relationship. Modern and traditional value orientations did aid in interpreting the relationship, but other factors were also operative. Kupinsky found that the non-familial activity of women decidedly influenced socio-economic differentials infertility. Thelabour force participation of women had a greater effect on reducing fertility among upper-status women than among those of lower status. This relationship was also influenced by the rural-urban background of the women.     

Mortality and Socio-economic Status in Two Eighteenth-century Dutch Villages

This study is an analysis of mortality levels and their patterns of change among different socio-economic groups in two eighteenth-century Dutch villages. In these two villages – Gilze and Rijen – there were substantial mortality differentials between farmers and agricultural labourers. Mortality differentials of this magnitude have not been found in other European villages, although they are not unheard of in cities. The differentials are probably unrelated to malnutrition, or a polluted water supply among the lower class. Relative overcrowding and poor hygiene are more probable causes. During the second half of the eighteenth century mortality levels were lower, especially among the lower class. These changes, however, did not result from a higher standard of living. They were probably related to a diminution in the amount of military activity on land in Europe after the War of the Austrian Succession.     

Residency differentials in Mormon fertility

Abstract Although one of the most consistent findings of recent fertility studies is the convergence of the religious differentials in fertility, few data have been analysed to discover Mormon fertility trends and differentials. This paper, based on data obtained on 1,001 Mormon couples, is concerned with describing the effects that the dispersion of Mormon families from the Mormon centre in Utah to surrounding areas with various social conditions is having on the fertility of the re-located Mormon families. Data presented clearly show that such families do, on the average, have a lower fertility than do their Mormon contemporaries residing in the homogeneous Mormon society in Utah. They probably compromise their religious obligations to have children with the contradicting demands of their new environment. Their loyalty to these religious beliefs, however, is confirmed by data which show that they tend to have larger families in their new environments than do their non-Mormon neighbours.     

Residency differentials in Mormon fertility

Although one of the most consistent findings of recent fertility studies is the convergence of the religious differentials in fertility, few data have been analysed to discover Mormon fertility trends and differentials. This paper, based on data obtained on 1,001 Mormon couples, is concerned with describing the effects that the dispersion of Mormon families from the Mormon centre in Utah to surrounding areas with various social conditions is having on the fertility of the re-located Mormon families. Data presented clearly show that such families do, on the average, have a lower fertility than do their Mormon contemporaries residing in the homogeneous Mormon society in Utah. They probably compromise their religious obligations to have children with the contradicting demands of their new environment. Their loyalty to these religious beliefs, however, is confirmed by data which show that they tend to have larger families in their new environments than do their non-Mormon neighbours.     

Decomposing the re-marriage process

For those who experience marital disruption because of discord, the re-marriage process consists of a series of steps including divorce and re-marriage. This paper analyses the overall differentials in re-marriage, decomposing them into two distinct parts: differentials in propensity to divorce following separation and re-marriage given that a divorce has occurred. The results indicate that differentials in re-marriage depend in important ways on both steps in the process.     

Decomposing the re-marriage process

Summary For those who experience marital disruption because of discord, the re-marriage process consists of a series of steps including divorce and re-marriage. This paper analyses the overall differentials in re-marriage, decomposing them into two distinct parts: differentials in propensity to divorce following separation and re-marriage given that a divorce has occurred. The results indicate that differentials in re-marriage depend in important ways on both steps in the process.     

Socioeconomic marriage differentials in Australia and New Zealand

While marriage rates are relatively stable among better-educated men and women, they are rapidly declining among those with low educational attainment. This development has been recognized in the US as a new socioeconomic pattern of marriage. This article uses census data to show that socioeconomic marriage differentials are also increasing in Australia and New Zealand. These differentials have previously been noted independently of each other and of the international picture. In synthesizing the antipodean data, the article documents the new socioeconomic marriage pattern as an international phenomenon. This article further considers the extent to which the available explanations for the new marriage pattern fit the antipodean setting. In general, the factors identified as important in the North American setting are applicable to both Australia and New Zealand. In particular, the poor marriage prospects of men with low educational attainment appear to be common to these post-industrial economies with minimalist welfare states.     

Implications of socio-economic differentials in mortality for the health system

The premise of this discussion is that a systematic and continuous monitoring system is required to assemble data on the social indicator "socio-economic differences in mortality." Attention is directed to 5 particular types of data: secular trends; class differentials and age; linearity versus dichotomy; cross-cutting variables; and downward mobility and biological selection. The following 2 basic questions are examined and answered with a qualified "yes:" 1) does the health care system have any relevance to mortality differentials; and 2) can a health care system have any degree of meaninful autonomy from the overall social system. The policy implications of this analysis are reviewed in terms of the value content of medical education, the organization of the health care system, the emphasis on health, and the focus on the community. The concepts of control and power are analyzed as the key to socioeconomic differentials. Emphasis on differential exposures to "stressors" is rejected for what is termed "a sense of coherence" -- a global orientation which emerges, or fails to emerge among the lower classes, against the background of a high level of generalized resistance resources. Essentially the problem is that the constricted, emergency, powerless, and unpredictable character of lower social class existence prevents individuals of lower class and groups from being able to cope with stressors. Ways that the health care system can strengthen the sense of coherence of the lower classes include the following: a formal monitoring system in each society; caution in assuming that technological advances, environmental control, and health education are egalitarian in their consequences; and the need to identify high-risk groups within the lower classes.     

Fertility levels and differentials in Beirut during wartime: an indirect estimation based on maternity registers

In this paper, total fertility estimates for Greater Beirut in the mid-eighties and early nineties are presented, and changes in socio-religious differentials of fertility across time are explored. The baseline information was recorded from registration details for all maternities in Beirut and its inner suburbs in 1984 and 1991: age of mother, number of children ever-born, hospital class, and religion of newborn. An indirect method was used to estimate total fertility from the joint distribution of mothers by age and parity, and, using hospital class as a proxy for social class, differentials in fertility were investigated by Poisson regression. The estimates of total fertility for Beirut shifted from 2.60 in 1984 to 2.52 in 1991, and were higher for Muslims than for Christians in the two periods. The regression analysis showed that: (1) the difference between the two religious groups persisted after control for social class, and in fact applied to the lower social class; (2) fertility dropped between the two dates in the lower social class, and more so for Muslims than for Christians. In comparison with other countries of the region, the decline in Beirut was found to be relatively modest. If the trends assessed in this study were to continue, the religious-based fertility differentials would taper off progressively in the capital city of Lebanon.     

Fertility, union status and partners in the WFS Guyana and Jamaica Surveys, 1975-1976

Abstract In this paper differences in the level of fertility are examined according to women's union status and their number mf partners. A number of approaches are used to analyse these relationships: differentials by current union status, the pattern of union history, and a measure of the sum synthetic composed of periods spent in each type of union, are discussed. The trend in these differentials is also analysed; using earlier surveys and census data forcomparison, we find that union status differentials have changed noticeably since the 1950s. Fertility differentials by number of partners (or the second measure proposed - number of dissolutioom) are also analysed. The data suggest that the long-existing interrelationship between union history and number of partners has now resulted in changing union status differentials within the new context of increasing use of contraception.     

Revisiting the Disengagement Theory with Differentials in the Determinants of Life Satisfaction

This study proposes that differentials in the determinants of life satisfaction can be used to test if the elderly have a new equilibrium. One's global life satisfaction is taken as an indicator for one's inner world and for the elderly, global life satisfaction is assumed to be not influenced by life domains which indicate drastic social changes, because they are supposed to be disengaged from social activities. On the other hand, global life satisfaction for other adults is affected by life domains indicating social changes, because they are still tightly involved with social activities. The differentials in the determinants of global life satisfaction thus indicate that the elderly have a new equilibrium.A national survey on Taiwanese living conditions conducted by the Ministry of Interior, the Republic of China, in 1998 is used to test the above hypotheses. The analytical results show that the elderly have perceived drastic social changes. Moreover, they do have an equilibrium that is different from the other two age groups.     

Completing the fertility transition in the developing world: The role of educational differences and fertility preferences

This study summarizes patterns of educational differentials in wanted and unwanted fertility at different stages of the fertility transition. The data are from Demographic and Health Surveys in 57 less developed countries. As the transition proceeds, educational differentials in wanted fertility tend to decline and differentials in unwanted fertility tend to rise. An assessment of fertility patterns in developed and less developed countries with low fertility concludes that these differentials are likely to remain substantial when less developed countries reach the end of their transitions. This conclusion implies that the educational composition of the population remains a key predictor of overall fertility in late transitional countries and that low levels of schooling can be a cause of stalling fertility.     

Completing the fertility transition in the developing world: The role of educational differences and fertility preferences

This study summarizes patterns of educational differentials in wanted and unwanted fertility at different stages of the fertility transition. The data are from Demographic and Health Surveys in 57 less developed countries. As the transition proceeds, educational differentials in wanted fertility tend to decline and differentials in unwanted fertility tend to rise. An assessment of fertility patterns in developed and less developed countries with low fertility concludes that these differentials are likely to remain substantial when less developed countries reach the end of their transitions. This conclusion implies that the educational composition of the population remains a key predictor of overall fertility in late transitional countries and that low levels of schooling can be a cause of stalling fertility.     

Determinants Of Cumulative Fertility In Ghana

The relatively few studies conducted on fertility differentials in Ghana have not controlled for the effect of important demographic variables, such as age at first marriage and current age of respondent. This paper attempts a multivariate analysis of the relationship between cumulative fertility and age at first marriage, level of education, religion, form of marriage and residence of husband. Data drawn from a census sample survey in 1971 include 72,816 currently married females aged 15–49 years. Age at first marriage was inversely related to cumulative fertility. The differentials were more pronounced for older women. Among the older women, the differentials were larger for rural than urban women. There were also significant fertility differentials associated with level of education, religion and form of marriage. Husband’s residence was a poor predictor of cumulative fertility. As a policy measure, it is suggested that priority be given to providing young women with more education or employment opportunities as an alternative to early marriage.     

The future of sex mortality differentials in industrialized countries: A structural hypothesis

This paper advances the hypothesis that the future of sex mortality differentials in industrialized countries may depend on the future mortality rates of blue collar men. Data are presented to support the argument that mortality rates from ischemic heart disease for this population subgroup play a significant role in current differentials and, furthermore, that sexsocial class-mortality differentials correspond to social structural differences in protection against and/or exposure to health risks. Research and policy implications of this argument are addressed briefly.The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policy or views of the World Health Organization.     

Feeling Close to Fellow Citizens in Hong Kong,Korea, Taiwan,and Thailand

Feeling close to fellow citizens in the city is a feature of social cohesion that is worth investigation among East Asian societies for exploring societal conditions for the closeness. Because of the variation of such conditions among the societies, differentials in the closeness among the societies are possible. As the variation of societal conditions can translate into differences in personal characteristics and experiences, such differences are likely to explain differentials in the closeness. This likelihood is a focus for the present study, which surveyed 4,087 adult citizens in Hong Kong (n = 681), South Korea (n = 1,006), Taiwan (n = 1,200), and Thailand (n = 1,200). Results revealed significant differentials in the closeness among the societies, showing that it was highest in Thailand and lowest in Taiwan. Furthermore, these differentials were largely due to differences in personal and characteristics among citizens in the four societies. Among the significant predictors of the closeness, work-family conflict and the costliness of medical expense are two experiences. The two experiences, as well as other predictors, champion a conflict or social force explanation for citizens’ closeness. Accordingly, conflict or social force that is incapacitating would estrange the incapacitated individual from others. The results and explanation imply that relieving work and family conflicts is relevant to lifting citizens’ closeness. In conclusion, the East Asian societies manifested differentials in citizens’ social cohesion, and the differentials are explicable by differentials in resources and conflicts among the societies.     

劳动合同类型、性别与工资差异

本文采用2002年中国城镇住户调查数据考察了我国劳动力市场的性别差异现象。研究表明,女性劳动力无论在工资待遇还是持有的劳动合同类型方面均受到歧视。Oaxaca分解结果显示,男女劳动力自身特征差异和性别歧视分别解释了性别间工资总差异的50％。与此同时,女性劳动力持有长期合同的比率远远低于男性,性别歧视是导致这一差异的主要原因。     

Mortality,marriage, and growth in pre-industrial populations

It has been widely assumed that in pre-industrial European populations postponement of marriage was a major check on fertility, and that marriage was contingent upon access to a livelihood in the form of a homestead or a craft. Death made room for new families, and the age at inheritance might therefore be an index of the age at marriage. High mortality should then mean early marriage and high fertility. When the effect of a uniform increase in the force of mortality on the “natural rate of growth” is estimated quantitatively, it is found that fertility response is of the same magnitude as the change in mortality so that within a wide range mortality differentials alone would not suffice to account for persistent differentials in growth rates. The assumption of a reasonably effective control through the prudential check is thus strengthened.     

Age,education and occupation differentials in interregional migration: Some evidence for Canada

This paper attempts to bring together the demographic literature on differential migration with economic analysis of regional labor mobility. This is done by estimating a rather simple form of economic model of migration by means of linear regression analysis for specific age, education and occupation groups of male interprovincial migrants in Canada. The data on migration are from the population sample of the 1961 Census of Canada. The pattern of migration differentials displayed by these data is broadly similar to that observed in the United States and elsewhere. The regression results suggest that differential migration by education and occupation groups may be accounted for by the varying responsiveness of the various groups to economic gains obtained through migration. While this seems to be generally true of age differentials as well, the relationship of those to regional income differentials is weaker and points up an important role of motivations other than economic gain.     

Decomposing primary and secondary effects: A new decomposition method

One strand of educational inequality research aims at decomposing the effect of social class origin on educational choices into primary and secondary effects. We formalize this distinction and present a new and simple method that allows empirical assessment of the relative magnitudes of primary and secondary effects. Contrary to other decomposition methods, this new method is unbiased, is more intuitive, and decomposes effects of both discrete and continuous measures of social origin. The method also provides analytically derived statistical tests and is easily calculated with standard statistical software. We give examples using the Danish Longitudinal Survey of Youth.