Partner involvement and contraceptive efficacy in premarital sexual relationships

This paper attempts to account for the strong, positive correlation between partner involvement and contraceptive behavior in premarital sexual relationships. Interpersonal and structural characteristics of partner involvement identified in previous research as possible explanatory variables were factor analyzed and three major dimensions were isolated: 1. affection and commitment, 2. sexual and contraceptive communication, and 3. predictability of intercourse. Partner involvement loaded highest on the affect factor. In a multiple regression analysis using composite (factor) scores, prior sex-related communication emerged as the strongest predictor of contraceptive behavior, followed by affection for partner; contrary to expectations, however, predictability of intercourse was not significantly related to contraceptive use.Funded by a grant from the Indiana University-Purdue University at Fort Wayne Research and Instructional Development Support Program.A version of this paper was presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association convention, Chicago, Illinois, May 3–5, 1984.Address requests for reprints to Judith K. Inazu, Dept. of Psychology, 2430 Campus Rd., University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822     

Natural family planning: A comparison of continuers and discontinuers

Little research has been done on social-psychological variables related to the use of natural family planning. The objective of this study was to analyze variables that differentiated between continuers and discontinuers of natural family planning (NFP). Questionnaires were obtained from couples who had received instruction in the sympto-thermal method of natural family planning at a large urban hospital. Subjects who were attempting to become pregnant or who were using other methods of contraception in conjunction with NFP were deleted from the analysis, leaving N of 74. With Pearson correlation, variables significantly related (p<.05) to NFP continuance were: religiosity, planning more children, perceived severity of pregnancy, support from spouse and relatives, dissatisfaction with other contraceptive methods, attitudes toward NFP, perceived effectiveness of NFP, attitudes toward abstinence, and importance of intercourse.     

Risk-taking and contraceptive behavior among unmarried college students

The contraceptive behavior of sexually active, never-married college women was examined using multiple regression analyses. Use of an effective method of contraception was highly situation-specific: length of relationship and frequency of intercourse were the variables most highly correlated with use of effective contraception, followed by method of contraception used at first coitus and knowledge of reproduction. Failure to use effective contraception was not associated with low estimates of pregnancy risk, nor with high utility of pregnancy, nor with uniquely high willingness to seek abortion. The results of the present study suggest that use or non-use of effective contraception is mediated by the predictability of sexual intercourse.We would like to thank Ira H. Bernstein for his assistance with computer programming and data analysis. Reprints are available from Ms. Irene Steeger, Center for Population and Family Health, Columbia Unviersity, New York.     

Attitudes About Children and Fertility Limitation Behavior

The relationship between attitudes and individual behavior is at the core of virtually all demographic theories of fertility. This paper extends our understanding of fertility behavior by exploring how psychic costs of childbearing and contraceptive use, conceptualized as attitudes about children and contraception, are related to the transition from high fertility and little contraceptive use to lower fertility and wide spread contraceptive use. Using data from rural Nepal, I examine models of the relationship between multiple, setting-specific attitudes about children and contraception and the hazard of contraceptive use to limit childbearing. Specific attitude measures attempt to capture the relative value of children versus consumer goods, the religiously based value of children, and the acceptability of contraceptive use. Findings demonstrate that multiple measures of women’s attitudes about children and contraception were all independently related to their fertility limitation behavior.     

The influence of psychological and situational factors on the contraceptive behavior of single men: A review of the literature

The study of contraceptive behavior has focused on women with relatively few studies examining the psychological and situational factors that influence male contraceptive behavior. A review of empirical studies indicates the importance of the personality variable of sexual anxiety and the cognitive variables of attitudes toward contraception and sex roles in influencing the contraceptive behavior of single males. However, the situational variable of having an established sexual relationship is the best predictor of whether contraception is used. Although the contributions of attitude and utility theorists have been of substantial assistance in understanding the contraceptive behavior of married couples, the affect-reinforcement theory appears to be more applicable to contraceptive behavior in general. An analysis of the socialization of males and females in terms of utility theory also helps explain the relative failure of adolescent couples in contraception.This research was funded by team grants from Health and Welfare, Family Planning Division, Canada and from Ministère des Affaires Sociales, Quebec. In addition, the second author was supported by a Bourse de I'Enseignement Superieur from the Quebec Government. Address reprint requests to Dolores Gold, Psychology Department, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Boulevard West, Montréal, Québec, H3G 1M8.     

Self-concept and contraception: Pre-conception decision-making

This paper deals with the extent to which two dimensions of self-concept, perceived competence and attitudes toward the female role, are a factor in pre-conception decision-making on contraceptive usage among women who have unwanted conceptions. The study was done throughout Michigan in 1974–75. The sample was 1746 women with unwanted conceptions, selected by means of a two-stage stratified sampling design. A standardized questionnaire included items on demographics, birth control use, and pregnancy resolution, as well as a feminism scale and a scale to measure perceived competence. Several multiple regression analyses were carried out. A hypothesis that contraceptive usage would be positively associated with perceived competence and negatively associated with traditional attitudes toward the female role was strongly supported. In an analysis of various subgroups, differing in age, race, and marital status, self-concept variables were significant predictors only among unmarried adults, regardless of race. Other important predictors of contraceptive usage among the subgroups were father's educational level, number of children raised by respondent, having a regular physician, and frequency of church attendance. For this sample, self-concept variables generally were better predictors of the pre-conception decision-making than of the post-conception decision.This research was supported by Grant #HD07739, NICHD. The authors are affiliated with Wayne State University.     

Contraceptive use at first intercourse among Jewish women in Israel, 1962–1988

Using data from the 1987–1988 Study of Fertility and Family Formation,this study examines the family planning practices of Jewish Israeli womenwho first had intercourse between 1962 and 1988. The overwhelming majorityof women reported using no contraception at first intercourse, and among those who did practice birth control approximately half relied on modern techniques. While the likelihood that Israeli women used contraception at first sex changed little between 1962 and 1988, there has been a marked shift towards the adoption of efficient methods of birth control. Moreover, factors which promote female empowerment, including education and military service, have been positively associated with contraceptive use at first intercourse. Among those women who practiced contraception at first intercourse, those from Africa and Asia have been especially likely to make use of inefficient methods such as withdrawal.     

An evaluation of the population and development program in Egypt

Previous rural surveys analyzing the impact of the Egyptian Population and Development Program on KAP variables (knowledge, attitudes, and practices of contraception) have produced mixed results. In 1982 a survey specifically designed to measure program impact contained refinements in questionnaire measurement, sampling, and analysis. Each refinement intensified the apparent program impact. Fertility itself still appears unresponsive, and attitudes toward family size have changed little, but marked differences between program and nonprogram areas in contraceptive knowledge, attitudes, and practice suggest imminent fertility declines in program areas.     

Why are uneducated women in India using contraception? A multilevel analysis

While women's education continues to be strongly associated with lower fertility in India, an important feature of India's current fertility transition is the spread of contraceptive use among uneducated women. Indeed, changes in their fertility are now making the major contribution to the country's overall fertility decline. We use multilevel statistical procedures to investigate the variation in contraceptive use among uneducated women across India. The analysis suggests that, while many of the expected socio-economic variables play their part, there are also considerable diffusion effects in progress, many of which operate at levels beyond the uneducated women's own individual circumstances. For example, we find significant relationships with others' use of contraception and others' education. Mass media exposure also emerges as an important diffusion channel. The multilevel analysis also reveals significant clustering of contraceptive use at different levels, much of which is accounted for by the variables included in the models.     

Measurement issues involved in examining contraceptive use among young single women

The objective of this study was to determine how research findings on contraceptive use among young single women are affected by differing operational definitions of contraceptive use. Data were analyzed from a student sample and a clinic sample. In the analysis of the student sample were 244 high school and college women aged 16–22 who had experienced sexual intercourse. In the birth control clinic sample were 432 women aged 13–20. Six operational definitions of contraceptive use were analyzed. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationship of predictor variables with the six definitions separately for each sample. The variance explained for each of the contraceptive measures ranged from 8 percent to 44 percent in the student sample and from 9 percent to 24 percent in the clinic sample.     

The association of television and radio with reproductive behavior

This note analyzes the association between media exposure and reproductive behavior in 48 developing countries. A summary of part of a more extensive Demographic and Health Surveys report, it shows strong connections between media exposure and the use of modern contraception, the number of children desired, and recent fertility. Television viewing is particularly important; it is assumed to expose viewers to aspects of modern life that compete with traditional attitudes toward the family and is associated with greater use of modern contraceptive methods, with a desire for fewer children, and with lower fertility. These relationships are particularly noteworthy because the data measure only the frequency of media exposure with no information about its content.     

The impact of mass media family planning promotion on contraceptive behavior of women in Ghana

This paper examines the influence of media messages about family planning, and attitudes toward media promotion of family planning, on contraceptive behavior of married women in Ghana. It also examines the problem of reverse causation that arises in studies of this nature when the data used provide no information on the temporal order of the actual time that respondents were exposed to family planning information in the mass media and the time of adoption of contraceptive behavior. The results show that exposure to media messages on contraception exerts strong impact on current practice of, and intention to use, contraception. Women who had heard or seen advert on contraceptive brands, and women who favor broadcast of family planning messages in the media, are significantly more likely to adopt birth control behavior than women who had not heard or seen, and women who do not favor broadcast of such media messages, respectively. Regarding the problem of reverse causation, the study demonstrates that while being exposed to media messages significantly affects a woman's contraceptive behavior, the reverse does not seem to be the case. The policy implications of these results and how mass media could be used to promote family planning in Ghana are discussed.     

Contraceptive attitude-behavior consistency in adolescence

Thornburg (1973) suggests that adolescents experience a high level of value-behavior inconsistency compared to individuals in other stages of the lifespan due to engaging in peer-oriented behavioral realms that are contrary to values shared with the parental family. Extending Thornburg's value-behavior inconsistency model to encompass contraceptive attitudes and behavior, it is predicted that contraceptive attitude-behavior inconsistency is prevalent among sexually-active adolescents, and that inconsistency would be greatest when parental and peer contraceptive attitudes are perceived to be incongruent. Analysis of a sample of 167 sexually-active adolescent females ages 13-to-18 indicates that general contraceptive attitudes are consistent with contraceptive use, whereas attitudes toward specific contraceptive methods are unrelated to contraceptive behavior. The data lend support to the predictions of Thornburg's model in that contraceptive attitude-behavior inconsistency is greatest under peer favorable/parent unfavorable and peer unfavorable/parent favorable contraceptive attitude conditions.This research was supported by a grant from the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona. The data for the study were gathered in 1978 and 1979.     

Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Among Young Adults: Connections to Gender Role Identity,Gender-Typed Activities,and Religiosity

Individual differences in attitudes toward homosexuality have been linked to numerous personality and demographic variables. This study investigated the influence that gender role identity, involvement in gender-typed activities, and religiosity plays in this relationship. The sample included 194 undergraduate students from a Northeastern university. Analyses revealed that both males and females who held a more masculine gender role identity and individual commitment to religion scored higher on measures of homophobia and heteronormativity, whereas there was no association between spiritual meaning in life and attitudes toward homosexuality. Among males, but not females, more masculine gender identity and less spiritual meaning in life was associated with greater homophobia. The importance of the findings for research on the origins of attitudes toward individuals with a homosexual orientation are discussed, as well as the potential directions for future research on connections between gender role identity, religious affiliation, and attitudes toward gays and lesbians.     

Perceptions of teen motherhood in Australian adolescent females: Life-line or lifederailment

PurposeThe findings presented in this paper describe the beliefs and attitudes of three different groups of adolescent females about teen motherhood. These were elicited from a larger analysis that explored and theorized contraceptive pathways in a sample of young Australian women.MethodsA purposive sample of females aged 14 to 19 years was recruited from three distinct populations in the city of Perth, Western Australia: (1) never-pregnant; (2) pregnant-terminated; and (3) pregnant-continued. Grounded theory principles were used to analyze data generated from 69 semi-structured interviews conducted over a 21 month period (2006–2008).ResultsTwo categories that described teenagers’ attitudes to pregnancy and motherhood were elicited from the analysis. These explained the level of priority that teenagers placed on using contraception and postponing the transition to parenthood. The category labeled ‘life derailment’ represented how those who had never had a pregnancy or had terminated a pregnancy constructed teen motherhood as potentially restricting their personal, career and social transition to adulthood. The alternative category, ‘life-line’, reflected how those who continued with their pregnancy perceived teen motherhood as a positive and transformative experience that fostered personal growth.ConclusionsThe findings from this study contribute further insight into the complex nature of adolescent contraceptive use and pregnancy risk. The analysis has strengthened evidence of the critical role of self-perceptions of pregnancy and childbearing on teenagers’ fertility outcomes. It has also emphasized the broader life circumstances that shape these attitudes, intentions and related behavior. Strategies directed toward academic support and vocational skill development may broaden teenage girls’ perceived future options and achievement capacity, thus influencing key reproductive health outcomes.     

The fallacy of the five million women: A re-estimate

Explicit policy to control fertility in the United States to date has focussed on the “unmet need” for contraceptive services in 1966 among an estimated five million poor and near-poor women. This paper reestimates the number of women in need of contraceptive services by disaggregating (on the basis of tabulations from the Current Population Surveys for 1966 and 1967, and the 1965 National Fertility Study) all poor and near-poor women into 54 subgroups differentiated by age, marital status, religion, and color. Data from the 1965 National Fertility Study, and from other studies, are then used to estimate for each subgroup deductions for sterility, pregnancy, waiting time for conception, and negative attitudes toward and current use of contraception. The residual number of women who both want and require contraceptive services, but do not have them, is estimated to be 1.2 million, rather than 4.6 million. The fact that the re-estimate takes into account both existing contraceptive practice and negative attitudes toward family limitation accounts for much of the difference between it and the original figure.     

Psychosocial maturity and teenage contraceptive use: An investigation of decision-making and communication skills

The developmental factors influencing teenage women's contraceptive decision-making with first sexual partner are investigated. A discriminant function analysis of results of a study of 17- to 19-year-old women shows the following: Pill users are distinguished from women who have not used any method by having had a longer relationship with their partner, having a more negative attitude towards becoming premaritally pregnant themselves, being older at the time of their sexual debut, engaging in more frequent sexual intercourse, being more trusting of their partner, and perceiving the risks of unprotected pregnancy as greater. Women who are protected by the use of condom are distinguished from women not protected by any method by having had more discussions with male friends about a variety of topics, having better role-taking skills, having a less negative attitude about becoming premaritally pregnant, and having discussed their sexual debut with their partner beforehand. Results are consistent with a conceptualization which distinguishes contraceptive methods on the basis of the psychosocial costs their use incurs for young women.Research supported by Grant #HD09813, National Institute of Child Health & Human Development. Thanks are due to Robin Halliday, Allyson Myhre, and Carolyn Scheve for help in conducing this investigation.     

Barriers to contraceptive use among Pakistani couples

Despite the existence of a family planning program in Pakistan since 1965 and widespread knowledge among Pakistanis about contraception, there is a high level of unmet need for family planning. One recent survey found that while 53% of married women express the desire to avoid pregnancy, less than 20% use contraception. A recent Population Council study conducted in urban and rural areas of Punjab province investigated personal beliefs, family circumstances, social norms, and gender relations among 1310 married women and 554 of their husbands. The unmet need for contraception was highest among women over age 30 years, those with more living children, less educated women, and women living in rural areas. The study found that while most Pakistanis approve of family planning, obstacles to contraceptive use exist in most marriages. 97% of respondents who wanted another child wished for a boy. That preference for sons influences contraceptive use behavior. The fear of social disapproval of contraceptive use, perceived opposition from in-laws and husbands, and fear of health side effects and divine punishment were major reasons identified against contraceptive use. Female contraceptive users were more autonomous and likely to make domestic decisions without consulting their husbands, while husbands defer to social and cultural norms.     

How do family planning workers’ visits affect women’s contraceptive behavior in bangladesh?

In Bangladesh, family planning workers' visits reduce the costs of contraception and may increase the demand. If visits increase demand or if workers are targeting their visits, past visits by family planning workers should have a positive and significant effect on later probabilities of adopting contraceptive methods. Longitudinal data show that past visits are not significant in hazard models for adoption of contraceptive methods, whereas visits in the current round are significant. Therefore family planning workers' visits affect women's contraceptive behavior by decreasing the costs of contraception. Results of contraceptive discontinuation hazard models further support this hypothesis.