MARRIAGE, DEPRESSION, AND COGNITION: UNRAVELING THE GORDIAN KNOT-REPLY TO ETTINGER ET AL.

Heim and Snyder (1991) explicitly applied a multidimensional assessment and data-analytic strategy to predict husbands' and wives' depressive symptoms from measures of marital disaffection, overt marital conflict, appraisals of relationship prognosis, characterizations of the spouse, and causal attributions. For both genders, the best single predictor of depression was a measure of marital disaffection—accounting by itself for approximately one third of the variance in subjects' depressive symptoms. Additional attributional predictors of depression for married women indicated the need for therapists to support wives' assertive expression of relationship concerns and confrontation of husbands' behaviors contributing to their distress. We reiterate the complex and recursive relationships among marital difficulties, depression, congnitive processes, and their antecedents and consequences and encourage focused research on components of this intricate puzzle.     

PREDICTING DEPRESSION FROM MARITAL DISTRESS AND ATTRIBUTIONAL PROCESSES*

This study examined the interaction between marital distress and spouses' attributions and expectancies regarding the marital relationship in predicting depressive symptoms in a mixed sample of 59 clinic and nonclinic couples. The best single predictor of depression for both sexes was a measure of disaffection, reflecting emotional distance and alienation in the marriage. However, prediction of wives' depression in multiple regression analyses was enhanced by measures of overt marital disharmony, attribution of causality for relationship difficulties to their own behavior, and failure to attribute difficulties to their husbands' behavior. Regression analyses accounted for 55% of the variance in wives' depression, in contrast to only 32% for husbands. Treatment implications are discussed.     

Marital distress,co-occurring depression,and marital therapy: a review

This article reviews several factors that contribute to marital distress and co-occurring depression and also reviews empirically supported therapies. Gender contributes to marital distress and depression but does not appear to be the cause of either. Marital distress and depression appear to have bidirectional influence on each other. The depressed spouse's depression has a marked impact on the marital adjustment of the nondepressed spouse. Both marital distress and depression appear to be chronic. It is recommended that treatment be designed to help couples be supportive of each another, to adapt, and to cope with the depressive symptoms within the framework of their ongoing marital relations.     

Marital Status and Depressive Symptoms

Marital status differences in depressive symptoms are examined in a random sample of 559 Anglos, 403 Blacks, and 822 Mexican American adults. Findings were generally consistent with a "crisis" model, with highest levels of depression observed among the separated, with lower distress levels among the divorced, although, marital differences remained significant after controls only among Anglo males. Differences were negligible among Blacks and Mexican Americans and lower levels of distress were found among never married than married Black females. Further analyses indicated that observed racial/ethnic differences can be partially explained by differences between groups in length of time since separation/divorce and likelihood of previous marriage, though significantly higher levels of depression and marital strain among married Black females relative to Anglo and Mexican American females-even among those in their first marriage-suggests differences between groups in the relative rewards or costs of marriage. These preliminary analyses underscore the need to examine alternative explanations of racial/ethnic and marital status differences in distress in a larger, prospective data base.     

Depression, marital satisfaction, and marital and personality measures of sex roles*

The present study examined the relationship between depression, marital satisfaction, and marital and personality measures of sex roles. Subjects included 50 couples in which the woman was clinically depressed (and of which 26 were maritally distressed), and 24 nondepressed, nondistressed control couples. Results indicated that compared to nondepressed couples, husbands and wives in relationships in which the wife was depressed showed greater inequality in decision making and dissatisfaction with the distribution of decision making and household tasks; wives additionally indicated greater dissatisfaction with distribution of childrearing responsibilities. The relationship between marital roles and depression was largely mediated by the impact of marital distress in the clinic couples. In addition, depressed wives were less masculine than nondepressed wives, and women with high levels of masculinity reported less depression than women with low levels.     

Clarifying the relationship between parenthood and depression

Unlike other major adult social roles in the United States, parenthood does not appear to confer a mental health advantage for individuals. However, while research has examined parental status differences in emotional well-being, relatively little is known about variations in emotional distress among parents. In this article, we clarify the relationship between parenthood and current symptoms of depression using data from the National Survey of Families and Households. The analyses provide support for our first hypothesis: Parenthood is not associated with enhanced mental health since there is no type of parent who reports less depression than nonparents. We also find support for our second hypothesis: Certain types of parenthood are associated with more depression than others. Additionally, although we find marital status differences in symptoms among parents, there are no gender differences in the association between parenthood and depression. We discuss the implications of our findings for ongoing theoretical debates about the advantages of social role involvement for mental health as well as the meaning of contemporary parenthood in the United States.     

Internalizing Symptoms in Adolescents: Gender Differences in Vulnerability to Parental Distress and Discord

This longitudinal study investigated gender differences in the relation between (1) internalizing symptoms of depression and anxiety reported by adolescents, and (2) emotional distress and marital discord reported by their mothers. Structural equation modeling was used to track the relationship between these variables in a community sample of 116 males and 101 females and their parents across three data intervals roughly corresponding to early adolescence (M = 11,4), mid‐adolescence (M = 13,7), and late adolescence/early adulthood (M = 19,2). For early adolescents, there were no gender differences in the relation between internalizing symptoms and parental distress and discord. Gender differences did emerge, however, by midadolescence, at which time parental disturbances were significantly associated with internalizing symptoms in adolescent females but not adolescent males. The emergence of this risk factor during this developmental phase may help account for frequent findings that place adolescent females at higher risk for anxiety and depression than adolescent males.     

Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms and Marital Relationship Functioning: The Mediating Role of Demand–Withdraw Communication Processes

Marital outcomes are associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms; however, the processes by which these domains are associated with marital outcomes are not well understood. This study examined how demand–withdraw (DW) couple communication accounts for the association between symptoms of mental illness and marital distress. A mediational model was tested in a sample of 100 newlywed couples to determine: (a) whether internalizing and externalizing symptoms influenced own and partner's level of DW communication, and (b) whether this communication pattern was associated with relationship outcomes, including lower marital satisfaction and presence of conflict. Results suggested that DW communication had significant effects on both partner's marital outcomes and mediated the association between externalizing symptoms (for husbands) and marital distress.     

Marital Relationships Following the Korean Economic Crisis: Applying the Family Stress Model

In response to the recent economic crisis in Korea and its negative effects on families, the current study examined the interrelationships among economic pressure, emotional distress, marital conflict, and marital satisfaction for 236 Korean couples. The family stress model ( Conger & Elder, 1994 ; Conger, Rueter, & Conger, 2000 ; Conger, Rueter, & Elder, 1999 ) was tested using structural equation modeling. The results generally supported the theoretical model, showing that economic pressure negatively affects marital satisfaction via emotional distress and marital conflict. The results also implied cultural differences in the process of family stress. Korean husbands' emotional distress did not affect marital conflict or marital satisfaction, suggesting that Korean husbands may differ from their wives in their reaction to emotional distress from economic pressure.     

The Structure and Content of Spontaneous Causal Thinking After Marital Separation

This study examined an assumption in attribution theory that people spontaneously engage in attributional thinking following a major negative life event. Raters sorted into categories 111 non-redundant questions elicited from 86 subjects who had recently gone through a marital separation. Each cell in the resultant data matrix contained a frequency count of the number of raters (n = 46) that grouped each pair of questions in the same category. Multidimensional scaling analysis of the data matrix revealed a three-dimensional solution with a primary dimension consisting of attributional questions on one end and questions indicating present and future concerns at the other end. The second dimension was labeled "we versus they" and the third dimension described a continuum with questions revealing uncertainty of the marital relationship at one end and questions reflecting recovery at the other end. In addition, the underlying dimensions of the attribution items are consistent with Weiner's (1986) locus, stability, and control dimensions of causality. Counseling implications and directions for further research are also discussed.     

DEPRESSION IN MATURE MARRIAGES: IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MARITAL THERAPY

Recent reviews of MFT literature have shown a failure to address mental health issues of the aging. Chief among these issues is depression, one of the most common psychological disorders found in older people. Although the relationship between depression and aging is a well-researched topic, few studies approach this common problem from a systemic perspective. Using data from a national survey of preretirement- and retirement-aged couples, this paper discusses the association between depression and marital quality in mature marriages as well the possibility of mediating variables such as the personality construct hardiness. Implications for marital therapy with older couples experiencing depression and future research are discussed.     

Intimate Partner Communication From the War Zone: A Prospective Study of Relationship Functioning,Communication Frequency,and Combat Effectiveness

This study examined (a) the association between relationship functioning prior to and during deployment, and the frequency of communication during deployment; and (b) the association between relationship functioning and depression during deployment and their influence on service members’ ratings of duty performance. Participants were 144 partnered Airmen assessed immediately before and during a one‐year high‐risk deployment to Iraq. Results showed an overall high frequency of partner communication during deployment. High relationship distress at predeployment predicted lower frequency of communication during deployment. Changes in relationship distress from before deployment to during deployment independently predicted frequency of communication, above and beyond predeployment distress levels. Level of relationship distress and depression during deployment independently predicted service members’ ratings of impact on duty performance.     

The Case for Insurance Reimbursement of Couple Therapy

A case is made for why it may now be in the best interest of insurance companies to reimburse for marital therapy to treat marital distress. Relevant literature is reviewed with a considerable focus on the reasons that insurance companies would benefit from reimbursing marital therapy – the high costs of marital distress, the growing link between marital distress and a host of related physical and mental health problems, as well as the availability of empirically supported treatments for marital distress. This is followed by a focus on the major reasons insurance companies cite for not reimbursing marital therapy, along with a discussion of advances in several growing bodies of research to address these concerns. Main arguments include the direct medical offset costs of couple and family therapy (including for high utilizers of health insurance), and the fact that insurance companies already find it cost effective to reimburse for prevention of other health and psychological problems. This is followed by implications for practitioners and researchers.     

Parenting Behavior as Mediator and Moderator of the Association Between Marital Problems and Adolescent Maladjustment

The present study examines the mediating and moderating effects of parenting behavior on the relation between marital problems and adolescent maladjustment. Extending earlier studies by using a prospective, longitudinal research design and multi‐informant methods, this study of 451 adolescents and their families from the Iowa Youth and Families Project demonstrates that parenting behavior mediates the relation between marital problems and adolescent outcomes. The results also suggest that both marital conflict and distress are harmful for adolescents. Furthermore, not just one aspect, but a broad range of parenting behaviors links marital problems to adolescent maladjustment. Finally, there was limited evidence that parenting behavior moderates the influence of marital problems on adolescent adjustment by intensifying the adverse impact of marital difficulties.     

Marital Enqing and Depression in Taiwanese Couples: The Mediating Role of Active and Passive Sacrifice

Using social exchange and identity theory, the authors examined the association between marital enqing and depression in 372 Taiwanese couples, and the mediating effects of active and passive sacrifice on that association. Marital enqing is a unique form of affection toward the partner in Taiwanese couples. Data was analyzed by using the actor-partner interdependence model to test for actor and partner effects among study variables. Results indicated that husbands, who reported more marital enqing, tended to have lower levels of depression. Partner effects revealed that couples’ marital enqing decreased their spouse’s depressive symptoms. Husbands’ sacrifice behaviors mediated the association between his marital enqing and depression. However, Taiwanese wives’ sacrifice behavior did not mediate the association between her marital enqing and depression. Chinese cultural principles indeed impacted how couples in Taiwan conceptualized marital affection differently from couples in western cultures, and it provided insights into its relationships with couples’ sacrifices and relational and individual wellbeing.     

Perfectionism,Coping, and Quality of Intimate Relationships

The present study examined the associations among perfectionism, marital coping, and marital functioning in a community sample of 76 couples. A theoretical model was tested in which maladaptive coping mediates the relationship between trait perfectionism and poorer marital functioning. As predicted, one of the interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, was associated with maladaptive marital coping and poorer marital adjustment for both the self and the partner, even after controlling for depression and neuroticism. Finally, the use of negative coping strategies mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer marital functioning for both the self and the partner. Overall, this study highlights the importance of spouse‐specific forms of perfectionism in marital adjustment.     

Predicting Spouses’ Perceptions of Their Parenting Alliance

This study used marital‐ and individual‐level variables to predict spouses’ perceived parenting alliance. One hundred married couples completed measures of parenting alliance, marital consensus, marital power, and depression. Analyses revealed that marital consensus was a significant predictor of parenting alliance for both parents, and that depression also was a significant predictor for wives. Analyses using both spouses’ data indicated that wives’ perceptions of consensus and depression significantly predicted both spouses’ parenting alliance, suggesting that wives are the barometer of the marital relationship ( Floyd & Markman, 1983 ) and of the parenting relationship as well. Implications for research are discussed.     

Economic Crisis and Marital Problems in Turkey: Testing the Family Stress Model

This paper applied the family stress model to the case of Turkey in the wake of the 2001 economic crisis. Using structural equation modeling and a nationally representative urban sample of 711 married women and 490 married men, we tested whether economic hardship and the associated family economic strain on families resulted in greater marital problems. Our results showed a modified family stress model applies to Turkey. In contrast to most previous research, economic strain had a direct effect on marital problems, and the indirect effect of strain, via emotional distress, was only significant for women. The results were interpreted in light of social and cultural factors that condition how economic distress affects marital relations.     

Postponement of health care by widowed,divorced, and never-married older men

This longitudinal research investigated the relationship between marital status and postponement of health care, reasons for postponement of treatment, factors associated with delaying care, and changes in health care behavior over a decade among 375 unmarried older men.Almost 30% of the men had not sought care when their health warranted it. Postponement of care was not associated with marital status although reasons for foregoing care were related to marital status. Discriminant analyses indicated the importance of financial distress to postponing care. The models were more effective in discriminating health care decisions of the formerly married than of the never married.Pat M. Keith is Professor of Sociology at Iowa State University. She earned her Ph.D. in Sociology at St. Louis University. Her current research interests are in the areas of gender roles in later life and rural-urban differences in the elderly.Address reprint requests to the author at Iowa State University, Department of Sociology, Ames, IA 50011.     

A Different Take on the Big Bang Theory: Examining the Influence of Asperger Traits on the Perception and Attributional Confidence of a Fictional TV Character Portraying Characteristics of Asperger Syndrome

Research shows that media figures can influence the construction of one’s personal and social identity. However, there are few studies that examine representations of stigmatized groups with developmental disorders, such as those with autism spectrum disorders. This research examines the effect of a viewer’s scores on the autism quotient (AQ) and their relationship with homophily and attributional confidence towards Sheldon on The Big Bang Theory, who is suspected of having Asperger’s syndrome (AS). Guided by uncertainty reduction theory the results indicated a positive relationship between the dimensions of the AQ and homophily with Sheldon, and a positive relationship between higher scores on the AQ and attributional confidence towards Sheldon. The implications of identification with fictional television characters for individuals with AS, and the application of the AQ in future research are discussed relative to the current findings.