The Role of Social Support in the Transition From Foster Care to Emerging Adulthood

Many youth leave foster care with disrupted relationships with their family and others in their social networks. Previous research has documented the severe adversity that former foster youth face in the transition to young adulthood. Perhaps some difficulties are at least partially related to a lack of social support that results from frayed relationships. This article reviews the literature on social support, particularly as it relates to foster youth, for the purpose of examining the role that formal and informal supports play in the transition to adulthood. The implications of this literature for successful transitions for former foster youth are discussed, as well as ways child welfare workers can engage youth and their families, and help them develop supportive social networks.     

Voices of former foster youth: Supportive relationships in the transition to adulthood

As the adolescent development literature has recognized the importance of social supports in the transition to adulthood, child welfare research, policies, and programs have turned their attention to the relational needs of youth emancipating from the foster care system. This study builds on the extant literature on social support among transitioning foster care youth; it goes beyond the sole identification of relational networks, to explore how youth actually utilize their network members, and the overall quality of their support system. This study collects data from twenty qualitative interviews with foster youth, ages 18–21. We analyze the data using consensual qualitative research methods in order to develop core themes around shared youth experiences. We found that while foster youth did identify a wide network of both formal and informal supports during their transition to adulthood, there were “holes” in the form of support, especially appraisal and instrumental support, provided by informal network members. Additionally, an unrealistic perception of supportive and permanent relationships may be contributing to poor outcomes in emerging adulthood. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.     

Is anybody there? Informal supports accessed and sought by youth from foster care

Young people's ‘ageing out’ of foster care has been described as stark and abrupt, in sharp contrast with the gradual process of transitioning to adulthood experienced by parented youth in the general population. Research has demonstrated that being supported during this transition is associated with a variety of health, social, and educational outcomes. The purpose of this article is to report former foster youths' perspectives on their informal supports, what difference these supports made for them, and what they believed would be useful in their transition to adulthood. Data came from semi-structured interviews with 43 former foster youth aged 19–26. Findings revealed that while approximately half the informants reported having support from family, most did not have family whom they regularly relied upon for emotional, practical and/or financial support. Further, while nearly all youths indicated that having support made a difference to them, many also noted that for daily living, they were on their own. The study's findings are an important reminder of the gulf existing between youth from care and parented youth in terms of their access to support during their journey to adulthood.     

Responsive engagement in mental health services for foster youth transitioning to adulthood

ABSTRACT

As youth near the transition to adulthood and aging out of the foster care system, exposure to stress increases, especially for youth who have less-than-adequate support systems. Although mental health problems among foster youth often continue into adulthood, service use decreases dramatically within a year of turning age 18. Understanding how foster youth experience mental health services as they transition from care provides social workers and other mental health professionals important insight that can lead to specific, targetable strategies. This study sought to explore what situations were helpful in supporting mental health as foster youth transitioned to adulthood. Focus groups and interviews with former foster youth and professionals informed the development of a quantitative instrument, which was used to identify the most supportive and frequently encountered situations former foster youth experienced. Findings indicate the most helpful situations were those in which professionals and mentors were flexible and responsive to their individual needs and trusted their ability to make decisions. Supportive adults who honored their choices and collaborated in decision-making were also helpful. Engaging, empowering, and partnering with transition-age youth may increase the likelihood of positive mental health outcomes for this population, offering implications for family-centered, strengths-based practice.     

“I don't know where I would be right now if it wasn't for them”: Emancipated foster care youth and their important non-parental adults

Research has identified the benefits of having non-parental adults for older youth in foster care, but less is known about the characteristics of these relationships, as well as the processes that support the foster youth as they transition from care to independence. The present study included a diverse group of 99 young adults, who recently emancipated from care in a major U.S. city. These young adults reported having a very important non-parental adult (VIP) and 63 of these VIPs were also included in this study. The youth participated in a two-hour in-person interview followed by a survey, and the VIPs underwent a phone interview; all of these interviews were later transcribed and qualitatively coded using thematic analysis. Overall, this study aimed to: 1) identify the characteristics of these VIPs, and 2) elucidate how the VIPs support youth during the transition from care. Prominent characteristics of the youth and VIP relationship identified in this study include the relationship being “parent-like”, respectful, and reciprocal with regards to communication. Moreover, it was found that both the youth and the VIPs viewed these relationships to be important in reducing negative outcomes for the youth. These results call for the foster care system to take steps in helping foster care youth find and build relationships with the non-parental adults in their lives — VIPs can serve as important sources of support to aid foster youth in their adaptation to young adulthood.     

Qualitative exporation of relationships with important non-parental adults in the lives of youth in foster care

Foster youth are at risk of poor adult outcomes. Research on the role of mentoring relationships for this population suggests the value of strategies that increase their access to adult sources of support, both while in foster care and as they reach adulthood. We conducted semi-structured, individual qualitative interviews with 23 former foster youth ages 18-25 regarding their relationships with supportive non-parental adults. We sought to identify factors that influence the formation, quality, and duration of these relationships and to develop testable hypotheses for intervention strategies. Findings suggest several themes related to relationship formation with non-parental adults, including barriers (e.g., youth's fears of being hurt) and facilitators (e.g., patience from the adult). Distinct themes were also identified relating to the ongoing development and longevity of these relationships. Youth also described multiple types of support and positive contributions to their development. Proposed intervention strategies include systematic incorporation of important non-parental adults into transition planning, enhanced training and matching procedures within formal mentoring programs, assistance for youth to strengthen their interpersonal awareness and skills, and the targeting of specific periods of need when linking youth to sources of adult support. Recommended research includes the development, pilot-testing, and evaluation of proposed strategies.     

Employment outcomes of former foster youth as young adults: The importance of human, personal, and social capital

In spite of a prevailing policy focus, little is known about the employment outcomes of former foster youth during early adulthood and the factors associated with those outcomes. We explore how former foster youth who aged out of care in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa are faring in the labor market at age 24 and what explains variability in employment and wages for these youth. We utilize multilevel models to analyze youth's employment using four waves of the Midwest Study. Our findings point to a critical need to better understand and address barriers to education, causes of substantial racial disparities, and characteristics of family foster homes that facilitate youths' employment. We find that youth who remain in care past age 18 attain higher educational credentials which translate into better employment outcomes. This research also highlights the need for policies directed at current and former foster youth who become early parents.     

The first three years after foster care: A longitudinal look at the adaptation of 16 youth to emerging adulthood

Sixteen former foster youth were followed for 3 years to examine their adaptation to emerging adulthood. Youth were classified on their adaptation according to 2 concepts, Connectedness and Risks. Connectedness refers to engagement with the adult world through work, schooling, marriage, and parenthood. Risks refer to problems with substance abuse, financial difficulties, and mental health problems that would hinder engagement with the adult world. All of the youth maintained at least one adult connection, but only 6 youth did not have a risk at the final interview. Three years after discharge 50% of the respondents had a drug and/or alcohol problem, and had neither savings nor health insurance. Despite many problems the post foster care period was marked by much resilience as most struggled to remain independent, and continue their schooling. Factors which facilitated successful adaptations were: a period of transitional residence after foster care, good support systems including family and former social workers, and a commitment to further education.     

Ideals and Reality: Perceptions of Healthy and Unhealthy Relationships Among Foster Youth

Exploring romantic relationships is a hallmark of adolescence. As dating relationships are often new during this development trajectory, learning how to be in a relationship (e.g., learning healthy communication skills, etc.) is necessary to facilitate positive partnerships during the transition to adulthood. However, foster youth are a group routinely overlooked within the literature on developing positive and healthy relationships. This formative, exploratory study utilizes focus groups and in-depth interviews to understand foster youth perceptions of healthy and unhealthy dating relationships through a social learning theory lens. Findings explore foster youth perceptions of ideal relationships, the realities of their lived relational experiences, as well as the lessons learned that they would like to impart on future generations of foster youth. Implications for research, practice, and policy (e.g., the need for communication skill building, comprehensive sex and relationship education, as well as screenings for dating violence) are also explored.     

Receipt of help acquiring life skills and predictors of help receipt among current and former foster youth

US law has long recognized the need to help prepare foster youth for the transition to adulthood and states receive funds specifically intended to provide their foster youth with independent living services. Nevertheless, little attention has been paid to whether foster youth in fact receive the services states are supposed to provide using federal funds. This study uses data from the Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth to describe the kinds of help foster youth receive in making the transition to adulthood and the factors associated with help receipt. Study findings call for a redoubling of efforts to provide foster youth with the assistance called for in federal law, provide support for the extension of foster care through age 21 in the interest of ensuring that such assistance is provided, highlight the need to involve foster parents more actively in providing youth with life skills training, and call into question whether current efforts to assist foster youth in acquiring independent living skills are well targeted.     

Natural mentoring among older youth in and aging out of foster care: A systematic review

Due to their histories of caregiver maltreatment, living instability, and potential attachment challenges associated with out-of-home care, older foster youth represent a particularly vulnerable group of adolescents at increased risk for a number of poor well-being outcomes. However, research supports the notion that a relationship with a competent, caring adult, such as a mentor, may serve protectively for vulnerable youth, and a nascent yet growing body of literature suggests that naturally occurring mentoring relationships from within youth's social networks are associated with improved outcomes among young people in foster care during adolescence and the transition to adulthood. This systematic review is the first to comprehensively identify, synthesize, and summarize what we currently know from nearly a decade of theories, concepts, and research findings pertaining to natural mentoring among adolescent youth in foster care. A bibliographic search of seven databases and personal outreach to mentoring researchers and practitioners through a national listserv yielded 38 English-language documents from academic sources and the gray literature pertaining to natural mentoring among older foster youth. We identified quantitative studies that have been conducted to test the theories and hypotheses that have emerged from the qualitative studies of natural mentoring among youth in foster care. Together, this literature suggests that natural mentoring is a promising practice for youth in foster care. Based on our findings from the systematic review, we make practice recommendations to encourage the facilitation of natural mentoring within child welfare contexts and outline an agenda for future research that more rigorously investigates natural mentoring among older youth in foster care.     

Re-entry among former foster youth in early adulthood: Findings from illinois

On January 1, 2010, the Foster Youth Successful Transition to Adulthood Act went into effect in the state of Illinois to legally permit former foster youth who are at least 18 years old and not yet 21 years old to voluntarily re-engage with child welfare agencies and juvenile court to receive Supporting Emancipated Youth Services. Not much is known about the number or characteristics of foster youth who have taken advantage of this new opportunity to receive support following a hardship. This study used administrative data from the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (IDCFS) to describe foster youth who have legally re-entered out-of-home care after exiting through emancipation. Findings revealed that a low number of former foster youth re-entered out-of-home care. This article discusses possible explanations for why so few youth have re-entered out-of -home care when research suggests they may be at increased risk for making the transition to adulthood.     

Continuity and Change in Stepfather–Stepchild Closeness Between Adolescence and Early Adulthood

This study draws on nationally representative data from Waves I and III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to prospectively examine the factors associated with different patterns of closeness between stepchildren and their stepfathers over the transition to adulthood in stably married stepfamilies (N = 881). Results indicate much variability in how these relationships unfold over time, although a sizable minority of youth remained close to their stepfathers. Consistent with family systems theory, the quality of other family relationships is particularly important to understanding children's relationships with stepfathers as they develop over time.     

Seeing (Transitions to) Adulthood in Youth (Sub)cultural Studies Through the Eyes of Former Straightedge Adherents

This article uses forty‐four face‐to‐face interviews with individuals who formerly identified with straightedge—a clean‐living, mostly youth‐based (sub)culture—to explore the possible role chosen youth cultural identities play in adult transition, as well as extend recent work on aging and youth scenes by more deeply engaging both “subjective adulthood” and the retrospective accounts of “ex” members. Data show interviewees developing (paths to) subjective adulthoods substantially influenced by former affiliation with straightedge culture they frequently believe mark their (paths to) adulthoods fundamentally distinct from others in their age cohort. Particularly, individuals transitioning from straightedge recounted pronounced subculturally rooted antipathy toward adult conventionality, often envisioned alternative adult trajectories for themselves, discussed transitional impediments and opportunities they took to be unique to transitioning from straightedge, and, in indicating heightened awareness of adulthood's “facework,” visualized a collective of others like them inside adult social spheres by virtue of the formative bases (former) scene affiliation provided them. Ultimately, findings suggest that the study of subjective adult transition may profit from directly considering the formative influence of elective youth identities. Likewise, perhaps the most fertile grounds in the turn toward examining aging and scenes might rest in meanings individuals attach to adulthood and transitioning, even for ex‐members of certain communities.     

Predictors of natural mentoring relationships among former foster youth

Based on a panel survey of 683 foster youth, the current study examined the respective relationships between the characteristics of former foster youth and various attributes of natural mentoring relationships, including the (1) likelihood that youth have a natural mentor, (2) relationship role (e.g., family member, non-family acquaintance) of mentors vis-à-vis youth, (3) frequency of contact between youth and natural mentors, and (4) emotional closeness of the youth-mentor relationship. Study results suggest that a combination of factors, including youths' social-emotional competencies and participation in social institutions (e.g., religious or service organizations) play very different roles in the development and maintenance of positive natural mentoring relationships. Collectively, the findings suggest several potentially important implications for foster youth and natural mentoring policy, practice, and research.     

The Use of Online Social Support by Foster Families

ABSTRACT

The extent to which foster families utilize social support on the Internet is examined in a sample of 34 foster families in a digital divide intervention program and a comparison sample of 30 foster families who were not part of the program. In spite of increased Internet access, the frequency of using online social support is low. A minority of parents and children increased their use of the Internet to give and receive help, communicate with other foster families and e-mail with their foster care worker. More than half of foster youth have used the Internet to stay in touch with friends and relatives and have “made a new friend” over the Internet. Implications for child welfare practice and for further research are discussed.     

Latent classes of older foster youth: Prospective associations with outcomes and exits from the foster care system during the transition to adulthood

Youth in the foster care system face considerable challenges during the transition to adulthood. However, there is significant variability within this population. This study uses person-oriented methods and a longitudinal dataset of youth aging out of foster care to examine differences in how subgroups of foster youth fare during the transition to adulthood. We identified four distinct latent classes, consistent with prior person-oriented studies of this population, and validated these classes by examining differences on additional relevant factors at age 17. After establishing these classes, we tested their predictive validity by examining differences in outcomes at age 19 in domains relevant to the transition to adulthood, including education and employment, problem behaviors, and mental health problems. Finally, given the importance of extended foster care in promoting better outcomes, we used survival analysis to prospectively examine whether class membership was associated with differences in the rates at which youth left foster care between ages 17 and 19. One large group of youth exhibited moderate behavior problems and left care quickly, while another large group of resilient youth had favorable outcomes and left care relatively slowly. A small group exhibited considerable behavior and mental health problems, but left care more slowly, and a very small group was characterized by a history of pregnancy. Findings suggest considerable variability in service need among older foster youth. Implications for service provision during the transition to adulthood are discussed.     

The transition from state care to adulthood: international examples of best practices

Around the world, the transition from adulthood is a difficult time for many youth. It is even more difficult for those who are transitioning to adulthood without the benefit of a support network full of family and friends. Youth leaving state care face a transition to independence and adulthood without many of the skills and supports most others take for granted. Preparedness is key to a successful transition, and youth leaving state care tend to be lacking it. In order for youth to truly be prepared for the transition process, they must have support in key areas of their lives: relationships, education, housing, life skills, identity, youth engagement, emotional healing, and adequate financial support. Without these supports, the dismal outcomes for youth transitioning to adulthood will remain unchanged. The United States, England, and Australia have successful programs targeting youth as they transition out of state care. These initiatives bring together and address the variety of needs of this unique population and aim to improve outcomes. While many of these programs and policies are in their infancy, they show promising results, and each contributes valuable experience to successfully working with youth through this tough transition.