The Role of Gesture in Children's Comprehension of Spoken Language:Now They Need It, Now They Don't

Two experiments investigated gesture as a form of external support for spoken language comprehension. In both experiments, children selected blocks according to a set of videotaped instructions. Across trials, the instructions were given using no gesture, gestures that reinforced speech, and gestures that conflicted with speech. Experiment 1 used spoken messages that were complex for preschool children but not for kindergarten children. Reinforcing gestures facilitated speech comprehension for preschool children but not for kindergarten children, and conflicting gestures hindered comprehension for kindergarten children but not for preschool children. Experiment 2 tested preschool children with simpler spoken messages. Unlike Experiment 1, preschool children's comprehension was not facilitated by reinforcing gestures. However, children's comprehension also was not hindered by conflicting gestures. Thus, the effects of gesture on speech comprehension depend both on the relation of gesture to speech, and on the complexity of the spoken message.     

Is the Audience the Message? A Note on LBJ's Vietnam Statements

Do politicians still tailor their messages for specific audiences,or has mass media coverage led them to homogenize their messages?Contentanalysis of 77 of Lyndon B. Johnson's public statements aboutVietnam showed that, depending on the audience, he did varythe content—which suggests that to some extentthe audienceis the message.     

Listening to Intense Messages: The Role of Arousal and Affect in Message Content Recognition

This study examines the interference effect of high-arousal, affective messages on the recognition of message content from less arousing messages. Subjects were 108 undergraduate students who viewed two political commercials in one of three conditions: Target (low intensity) followed by high-arousal message, target followed by low-arousal message, and target preceded by high-arousal message. The messages used were the political commercials of Michael Bailey concerning family values and abortion.

Results indicated that arousal effects recognition of message content. It appears, however, that high-arousal messages facilitate the recognition of content from a low-arousal message presented either before or after the stimulus.

These results are discussed in terms of current conceptualizations of affect-inducing messages and listening. Areas of further research are also suggested.     

The Effects of Pop-up Harm Minimisation Messages on Electronic Gaming Machine Gambling Behaviour in New Zealand

In New Zealand a simple pop-up message feature that provides gambling session information and forces a break in play is mandatory on all electronic gaming machines in all venues (EGMs). Previous research has demonstrated small effects of more sophisticated pop-up messages tested predominantly in laboratory environments. The present research examined gambler engagement with and views on the New Zealand pop-up messages and on the relationship between pop-up messages and EGM expenditure. A sample of gamblers was recruited at casino and non-casino (pub) EGM venues. Most participants were aware of pop-up messages (57 %) and many saw them often (38 %). Among gamblers who reported seeing pop-up messages, half read the message content, and a quarter believed that pop-up messages helped them control the amount of money they spend on gambling. Participants who reported being likely to stop gambling in response to pop-up messages spent significantly less money on gambling when variables that were independently associated with EGM expenditure were controlled for. A modest harm minimisation effect of the pop-up message feature that has been operating in New Zealand for 5 years was evident. Suggestions for improvement of the harm minimisation potential of the current pop-up message feature are discussed.     

Intention to comply with crisis messages communicated via social media

The rapid growth of social media challenges crisis communicators to disseminate safety messages to affected audiences quickly and in a manner that promotes maximum compliance. A nationally representative consumer panel responded to food recall messages that varied in source (organizational or user-generated) and reliability (confirmed versus unconfirmed). Results indicated that intent to comply with a food recall message was stronger in response to organizational messages than to user-generated messages, but did not vary according to message reliability. Strong age cohort effects were seen in the responses to message source, with younger participants making less distinction than older cohorts between organizational and user-generated sources. Implications of the results for public relations and crisis communications theory and practice, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research were discussed.     

An Examination of Weight-Associated Memorable Messages,Sources, and Outcomes

As college students are particularly vulnerable to weight struggles, understanding how weight-related communication impacts behavior can have important implications for overall health. This study investigated memorable messages regarding weight using the theoretical lens of control theory. Control theory provides a guiding framework to predict how memorable messages impact subsequent behavior when an individual senses a discrepancy between their ideal and actual weight. Participants were asked to report whether they had experienced a weight-associated discrepancy and if they recalled a memorable message about this issue. For those with a memorable message, characteristics and outcomes of the message were solicited. The prevalence of weight-associated discrepancies, associated memorable messages, topics, sources, and perceived intentions of the memorable messages and the reported outcomes of message recall were identified. Findings address the relationship between interpersonal communication and weight and offer insight to the role of memorable messages in both construction and achievement of individuals’ ideal states.     

Psychometric Properties of the Sexual Attitudes Scale in a Sample of Unmarried Chinese Young Adults

The content and presentation of AIDS/sexuality education messages affect the influence of the program. The messages will be more successful in reaching desired program outcomes if specific principles of message construction are followed. Authors of AIDS/sexuality education material for youth often face challenges that make the development of appropriate messages difficult. I suggest eight principles for authors to follow in writing specific messages.     

Does Sport Celebrity Advocacy Work? Testing the Potential for Endorsements to Backfire

Fandom and psychological reactance theory, a framework for understanding reactions to messages perceived to limit an individual’s freedom to choose freely, are used to examine the influence of sports celebrities. An experiment was conducted (n = 283) to examine the impact of source similarity and controlling language use on reactance levels and message evaluations. Findings suggest that sources perceived to be similar generated less reactance than dissimilar sources. Similar source messages were also linked to greater potential for information-seeking behavior. High- versus low-controlling language use was examined in conjunction with similarity; low-controlling language was found to generate the least reactance regardless of source similarity. Implications for the use of celebrity advocacy in marketing and public relations are discussed.     

Effects of segmentation patterns on the perception of deception

Subjects viewed videotapes of truthful and deceptive messages. Channels presented were either face or body with or without speech. Subjects were instructed to segment each message into either large, medium, or small units; following the segmentation of a message, subjects rated its truthfulness. Results showed that subjects who organized the behavior into small units perceived the messages as more truthful than those who organized the behavior into either medium or large units. In addition, when speech was available, accuracy of lie detection was highest when the behavior was segmented into medium units; when speech was not available, accuracy of lie detection was highest when the behavior was segmented into small units. The effects of observation set on the perception of deception were discussed.     

Promoting low-income preschoolers’ school readiness through a text messaging intervention

The aim of the study is to evaluate the effects of a language-rich math content text message intervention as a way to promote child literacy outcomes for children enrolled in 15 Head Start centers participating in Jumpstart. Two-hundred and fifty-eight families were randomly assigned to treatment (language-rich math text) or control (information about kindergarten enrollment) conditions. Families received text messages in English, Spanish, or written Chinese. Parents reported on children’s fall entry skills and family demography. Teachers reported on children’s interest in math and literacy. Children were directly assessed on literacy skills to determine if the language-rich math content increased literacy skills. Structural equation models reveal no main effects for the sample of 258, but subgroup analyses by language show intervention effectiveness. For families receiving text messages in English, effectiveness depended on children’s fall letter and shape knowledge for increasing phonological awareness (English). The intervention appears most effective for Spanish-speaking families by increasing children’s math and literacy interest, definitional vocabulary, and print knowledge. Limitations and finding implications are discussed.     

Promoting AIDS-preventive behaviours: The role of message fear appeal and audience's characteristics

Abstract

This study was conducted to assess the effects, in terms of cognitive elaboration and behavioural intentions, of television anti-AIDS public service announcements adopting different levels of fear appeal. At the same time, the influence of audience's characteristics, such as general orientation toward risk, perceived risk of contracting AIDS, and past sexual behaviours was analyzed. 114 Italian undergraduate non-psychology students participated in a pretest-treatment-posttest experiment on voluntary basis. Subjects were randomly allocated to the exposure of three messages adopting increasing levels of fear appeal. Results both from analyses of covariance and from structural equation modelling show that: a) extreme levels of fear appeal induce negative evaluations and reduced compliance with the message; b) future preventive intentions are much more affected by past preventive behaviours than by anti-AIDS messages; c) general orientation toward risk significantly affects both past and future preventive behaviours.     

Anchoring in lie detection revisited

Previous research has shown that the human lie detector tends to interpret messages as truthful rather than as deceptive (the truthfulness bias) and to infer attitudes congruent with the content of the (sometimes deceptive) messages (over-attribution). It was hypothesized that these effects are moderated by the extent to which receivers are anchored to the verbal content of the message; that is, receivers might form an early impression of the content and fail to adjust this impression sufficiently even if the message appears false. In the present study, receivers either judged the truthfulness of the message first and the sender's attitude second, or judged the sender's attitude first and truthfulness second, or judged only the sender's attitude. We proposed that having to judge truthfulness first would interfere with the role of the verbal content as an anchor for the receiver's impression. Consistent with this rationale, the results showed that both truthfulness bias and overattribution diminished when receivers judged truthfulness first compared to when receivers judged attitudes first or judged only attitudes.     

Effect of framing on cognitive processing in public relations

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of message framing on cognitive processing by employees of an internal organizational message. A between-subject factorial experimental design with random assignment was used to test the moderating role of message frames on cognitive processing. Subjects in the study produced a significantly different number of thoughts in response to messages with different frames. The different frames presented also resulted in generation of different topics of thought for participants. This difference in cognitive response to a message may point to a difference in the salience of the message for the audience. The results of this study underscore the need for public relations practitioners to understand the needs and motivations of internal audiences and to contextualize internal messages for increased effectiveness in persuasion.     

Simple But Powerful Health Messages for Increasing Condom Use in Young Adults

In a large longitudinal study involving young adults, we conducted an eight-hour STD educational intervention and examined the impact of the intervention on the efficacy of a message for promoting condom use. The message was framed in positive or negative terms and was presented visually or in numbers (percentages or frequencies). Results indicated that the numerical positive-framed message increased condom use among young adults who did not receive the intervention, whereas the numerical negative-framed message did not. Attitudes toward condom use along with changes in intentions to use condoms mediated this framing effect. In contrast, the positive-framed and negative-framed messages were equally and highly effective for promoting condom use when the messages were presented visually or when young adults received the STD educational intervention before reading the message, suggesting that the simple brochures featuring visual aids were as effective in changing attitudes and behavioral intentions as the extensive intervention. These findings add to a growing body of evidence detailing the mechanisms that allow well-constructed visual aids to be among the most effective, transparent, memorable, and ethically desirable means of risk communication. Clinical and public health implications are discussed.     

Consumption,time and the environment

This paper combines a time-allocation approach with a model of economic dynamics, based on the accumulation of human capital, and constrained by the environment. Consumption is modelled as an activity, combining time and commodities, and embedded in the environment. An economic interpretation for a structural shortage of time in consumption activities is suggested. It is also shown, that the environmental embeddedness of consumption can contribute to restoring more balanced proportions of time and commodities in consumption. In a dynamic setting the paper also discusses the effects of discounting on consumption, the use of time and the environment. It is found that, within a certain range of the rate of discount, a ‘discounting trap’ may arise, significantly depressing the level of environmental quality in the long-run equilibrium.     

Producing Drama: Symbolic Communication and the Police*

Organizational analysis, based on a version of symbolic interactionism, is used here to advance a dramaturgical perspective on the relationships between organization, information and technology. Organizations are defined as meaning-production systems stabilized by relatively permanent interactions that are temporally and spatially-based. Ethnographic data, gathered by fieldwork in two police communication centers in the United States and in England, are presented. Each organization receives messages centrally and processes them through three segments (operators, dispatchers and officers). In semiotic terms, the police can be seen to be a means for producing drama, or the selective presentation of signs which either heighten or reduce the salience of other signs in a message. The primary conditions which increase the likelihood of drama being attached to policing are tentatively advanced. The police reduce the salience of emotive or expressive aspects of communication by encoding (recoding) citizens' messages from an aesthetic mode to a logical classificatory code. The greater the information supplied by a caller, the more ambiguity in the call-classification process, and the more interpretation is required. Interpretations rendered are based in part upon segment specific understandings of the meanings of the calls, and in part on more general or shared meanings based upon the occupational culture. The result of these interpretations is that messages become more poetic in character as they move across segments within the system. The police also reproduce their own metaphoric version or map of society in and by their encoding, decoding and recoding actions. By so doing, they maintain the dramatic importance of the police and their actions, and the centrality of myths that reify the notion that the police can and do control all that needs controlling in a society.     

Employees as information influencers of organization’s CSR practices: The impacts of employee words on public perceptions of CSR

This study investigates the impact of employees’ words about their organization’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities on external publics’ attitudes and behaviors toward the organization. Specifically, it examines how the valence (positive vs. negative) of employees’ words regarding a CSR campaign interacts with the type of channel (face-to-face vs. social media) of employees’ communication behaviors, and how these factors affect external publics’ perceived authenticity of the organization’s CSR, corporate attitudes, and purchasing intentions, respectively. An online experiment among 221 general consumers in the United States was conducted. The results demonstrated that negative messages regarding CSR distributed by employees in face-to-face communication decreased publics’ favorable attitudes and behavioral intentions to a greater extent than that distributed via social media (i.e., Facebook). However, the effect of communication channel became insignificant when positive messages regarding CSR were shared by employees. The results further showed that perceived authenticity mediated the effects of channel and message valence on publics’ attitudes and behavioral intentions. Theoretical and practical implications for CSR practices and employee communication are discussed.     

Intentionality behind nonverbal messages: A perceiver's perspective

This paper examines the ways in which people decide whether or not a nonverbal message is intentional. It was predicted that judgments of intentionality would be biased by an interactant's desire to protect his or her self image. Participants (N=163) in the study went to banks and discussed new accounts with an employee. They were then asked by a confederate to discuss the nonverbal messages perceived to be sent by the employee. The results indicated that respondents reported messages accompanied by attributions of intent at a rate greater than chance. In addition, positively labeled nonverbal messages usually received interpretations of intentionality. Negative messages were viewed most often as unintentional. In those instances where negative messages were seen as intentional, participants said that the employee had strong external pressures to act in a negative manner.The authors wish to thank reviewers Michael Motley and Patricia Noller for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.     

Promoting responsible gambling via prevention messages: insights from the evaluation of actual European messages

Prevention messages are short sentences supposed to broadcast preventive intentions. Three types of messages are noticeable: messages correcting erroneous beliefs, messages informing about the risks and messages promoting responsible gambling. While the results in the literature about messages promoting results are alerting, they are frequently used in European prevention campaigns. The present study relied on language and semantics models to evaluate the communicative and preventive values of 14 messages: 7 were actual European prevention messages and 7 messages were created for the study. Overall, 339 participants answered an online questionnaire in which they evaluated the communicative value of one of the messages and then ranked all the messages according to their preventive level. Results showed that messages informing about the risks and messages correcting erroneous beliefs have a higher level of communicative value than messages promoting responsible gambling. Indeed, the latter are judged as more ambiguous and as less preventive than the two other types of messages. As models of conversational pragmatics suggest that ambiguous messages convey at least two interpretations, the article discusses the possibility that individuals comprehend these messages as incentives to control their impulses (prevention) and incentives to control the game (promotion).