Birth planning being a historical trend of population evolution in China]

China has historically valued and promoted population growth. Throughout the centuries, China's population development was characterized by 4 trends: 1) High birth rate caused by: a patriarchical system and ethical philosophy of ancestor worship which required a continuous family line, plus a system of private ownership where land was the primary means of production; a political philosophy that encouraged births and punished the lack of offspring; and a social attitude that promoted early marriages. 2) High death rate caused by: civil wars and violent struggles for power; natural disasters; plague; and infanticide of female babies. 3) A relatively slow rate of population growth resulting from high birth and death rates. 4) A relatively sparse population and abundant land prior to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With the establishment of a new China, basic changes occurred in the social system and the means of production. For 30 years (1949-1979), China enjoyed peace, higher educational and public health standards, and was free from disastrous natural calamities, a consequence of which was a higher birth rate and lower death rate. Concurrently the thinking was that "the more people the better," so that population grew at an alarming rate. From 1949 to 1979, China's population increased by 422,150,000, compared with its previous 2000 years in which the population had increased nearly 400,000,000. In 1965, the national birth rate was 38.06/1000 compared with 19.95/1000 in 1944 for the 6 largest cities. The death rate in 1938 was 28.2/1000, but by 1965 it had dropped to 9.55/1000. The rate of natural population growth in 1965 was 28.51/1000 compared with the highest rate in China's history of 1957/1000 durint the Eastern Huan Dynasty (25-189 A.D.). Unfortunately there has been no conscious policy to plan population growth along with economic growth, so that population grew uncontrolled and people had less land per person than at any other time in China's history. Thus, China now advocates 1 child per couple.     

Agricultural backwardness being the fundamental cause of rapid population growth]

We have been an agricultural country for more than 2000 years. The low level of mechanization and dependence of manpower in our agriculture required a large quantity of labor. Therefore, development of Chinese feudal society was closely related to the population growth. After the establishment of a new socialistic China, the rapid development of agricultural production resulted in our 1st population boom (1952 to 1957). Later the rapid development of heavy industry demanded the transfer of a large amount of labor from agriculture. The shortage of labor in China caused reductions in agriculture and a 2nd population boom. The backward nature of China's agriculture requires increased labor input to increase production. On the other hand, the increased productivity does not match the demands of the increased population. Consequently, living standards in the society decrease and the population growth slows. The emphasis on population control and family planning is indeed beneficial to China's economy. The fundamental solution of China's population problem must rely on a technical revolution in agriculture and increased agricultural productivity.     

Theories and practical problems of population facing four modernizations being conscientiously studied]

The Second National Symposium on Population Theory focused on the problems of population and their solution associated with the 4 modernizations. The following issues discussed by 7 Sumposium panels are summarized: population development theory in the socialist society; population problems in China and their solution; population policies and legislation relating to population control; population distribution and migration; population estimation and population planning; and population research and the establishment of population theory. Discussants agreed that the comprehensive investigation of population principle in a socialist society is of great importance to decisionmaking in the area of China's population development policy. Several different issues arose concerning the content and critical areas in the development of a socialist population principle. More than 1 principle is operating in socialist population theory, but the most important is the principle of population reproduction. The point was made that in addition to the population principle specific to individual society, there exists principles that are common to every society. The consensus was that population growth is associated with all the economical, political, and idelogical developments and that among these the association between population growth and economic development is the most significant. The current major population problem in China was identified as maladjustment between population growth and economic development. This maladjustment has led to problems in the areas of education, employment, transportation, and housing. The fundamental solution was identified as improving economical development to increase the material reproduction and controlling the population reproduction. In addition to birth control policies, it was suggested that population policies should include the geographical distribution and migration of the population. There was wide support for the proposal to legislate population control. It was agreed that such legislation would promote the progress of population control and assure its success. Discussion of the problems of population distribution and migration concentrated on the population problems of the urban area and minority ethnic groups. It was suggested that a nationwide census be conducted in population planning, population legislation, and population theory investigation. In order to establish the socialist population theory, it is essential to clarify the subjects, scopes, and methods of population research.     

Further discussion of the quantitative limitation of population growth and planned adjustment]

The problem of the quantitative limitation of population growth is related to the development of economic and social productivity. Under a Socialist system, the reproduction of people themselves may follow a projected plan, in order that population growth may match economic growth, the quality of the population may be promoted, and sufficient employment will be possible for the entire labor force. The problem of the quantitative limitation of population growth, however, still exists. In the early stage of social development under Socialism, a quantitative limitation of population growth and planned adjustment were necessary in order to provide enough basic needs for daily livelihood and employment. In the later stage of social development, a quantitative limitation of the population growth and planned adjustment are still needed for the purpose of promoting population quality and ensuring the entire development of the people. Under a socialist system, excessive labor productivity will not produce pressure on the population; instead, it will provide new content for the planned adjustment of people's production and reproduction. From here, the capability of dealing with the problem of the newly increased population will be strengthened, and also the capability of working out a planned adjustment between the two productions will be enhanced.     

Gay male couples: the importance of coming out and being out to parents

This exploratory study applied grounded theory methodology to examine what coupled gay men thought were the relationship impacts of being out to parents and in-laws. Data were collected from an accidental sample of 40 men in 20 homosexual couples using a standardized, open-ended interview. Virtually all of the respondents who had come out to their parents experienced initial and ongoing parental and in-law disapproval for their lifestyles and relationships. However, most men believed that it benefitted their unions to be out to their parents and partner's parents. Not having to hide the relationship was seen as a primary relationship advantage. Inclusion of one's partner in family events also emerged as a significant benefit. In contrast to the existing literature, a large proportion of respondents believed that parental/in-law antagonism had no adverse impacts on their dyads. They shielded their relationships by maintaining a strong sense of independence and in turn solid intergenerational boundaries. This study provides evidence to suggest that disclosure of sexual orientation to parents may be a distinctive, important developmental task for gay men which is critical to their relationships with their partners. Based on the findings of this research, mental health practitioners would be advised to assist gay men in the establishment and maintenance of strong intergenerational boundaries to protect their unions from parental/in-law disapproval.     

Regional Population Evaluation will be carried out for significant government projects in Beijing

The rapid population growth has been a major problem of Beijing.It affected on transportation,schooling and housing.On 26th September 2011,Beijing Population and Family Planning Commission announced that they would draft population assessment provisions.Government policies would be issued according to population plans for assessing their effects on population control.     

The research of population science must initiate a new situation]

The basis for initiating a new situation in population research lies in Hu Yaobang's address at the 12th National Congress when he said that the population problem is of extreme importance and that birth control is a basic national policy. The rapid population growth, he continued, influences income, food, clothing, shelter, education and work, and it might even influence the stability of a society. Thus, birth control work, particularly in the countryside, must never be lax. But if the work is done well, then population control can be successful. There already exists a good basis for population research. Since the 1970s, demography developed rapidly, whether it was in population theory, population control, disseminating information, training cadres for census work, projecting population, or in developing professional relationships on an international level. The Population Association of China, established in 1981, was followed by population associations in the provinces, cities, and autonomous regions. In the last 2 years, the Population Association of China convened 5 specialized meetings. Currently China has a Population Research Center and 217 offices, plus demographic studies at the People's University and Fudan University. In initiating a new situation in demography, one should study new situations, sum up new experiences, and solve new problems. The national policy is to control population numbers and raise population quality. This can be done by educating peasants that female babies are worthwhile, protecting mothers who bear female babies, and encouraging eugenics.     

Perspective of practical biological control and population theories

We have not yet had sufficient theoretical explanation for successful biological control in which a key pest is controlled after an introduction of natural enemies. I compare here real features of successful biological control and theoretical host–parasitoid population models to reduce the gap between theory and practice. I first review the historical interaction between classical biological control projects and theoretical population models. Second, I consider the importance of host refuges in host–parasitoid population dynamics as concerns the mechanisms of low and stable host density. The importance of density–dependent parasitism through parasitoid reproduction in multivoltine host–parasitoid systems and supplemental generalist natural enemies are also discussed. Finally, I consider the difference in tactics for classical biological control and for augmentation of natural enemies in annual crop systems. Received: December 20, 1998 / Accepted: January 15, 1999     

Four theories of population change and the environment

Conclusion It is clear from the discussion of the four principal frameworks used to study population and land use that there is no consensus on the relationship. Most of the debate has centered on the two rivalpolicies of the neoclassical economists and the classical economists or natural scientists. Consensus has been difficult to reach mainly because the empirical evidence is weak and inconclusive, and the diverse experiences of different regions make it difficult to generalize for policy. Because the linkage is unclear, it seems premature to conclude that curbing population growth is the only or most important remedy for land degradation.It is relevant to note that this paper has focussed only on land degradation. It may be that population change plays a more conclusive role in affecting other aspects of the environment.The National Research Council is the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences. The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author.     

Studying Marxist theory on population and initiating a new situation in demographic research]

Within Marxist ideology are important population theories that led to the establishment of demography and the work of population control in China. Marxist population theory should be studied in order to build a scientific system of concepts in population theory. Both Marx and Engels spoke of the relationship between human reproduction and material production, and of how the modes of social development determine population development. Marx also established the view that a normal population and surplus population both were mutually adaptable with a certain production basis. In any historical period, the total population is not determined subjectively by man's wishes, but is a product of historical development. The Maoist population theory is derived from Marxist theory. Borrowing from historical materialism, Mao said that of all the objects in the world, man is the most precious. Nevertheless, he continued, while China's large population is good, it brings many difficulties; thus, population must be controlled. The study of demography should follow Marxist and Maoist population theories, even though the study of Marixst population theory is relatively recent and much remains to be learned.     

需进一步控制我国人口增长的实证分析

谈进一步控制我国人口增长是缘于“五普”人口数据不准,算全面建设小康社会人口大账的考虑,以及用生产力标准衡量的结果。文章研究认为,进一步控制我国人口增长所牵涉的问题可以通过观念更新、措施更新解决。     

The characteristics of population growth of the Dongxiang nationality and the necessity of carrying out family planning]

For a long time, the Dongxiang nationality has lived in the area of Dongxiang, which is a part of Gu Hezhou in Gansu Province. Among the various minorities in China, the Dongxiang people has been noted for their small population. In recent years, however, their population growth rate has been very high. Statistics show their annual population growth rate was 13.5% in 1970 and 32.8% in 1980. This situation is caused mainly by the young age of the population (young persons under the age of 19 constitute 55.7% of the entire population). Because of the popularity of Islam among the people, the custom of early marriage and having children at an early age has long been a tradition. Rapid population growth has created numerous problems. Food production has been unable to keep up with the speed of the population growth, and economic development cannot satisfy the needs of the rapid growing population. The Dongxiang people are physically healthy and strong, and marriages between close relatives is prohibited. Because of the backward condition in education and culture, efforts to promote the quality of the Dongxiang population have remained slow and ineffective. Starting in 1974, the local government in Dongxiang launched extensive birth control projects and positive results have been achieved. At the present time, about 62% of its population have taken birth control measures, and the natural population growth rate dropped to 15.34% in 1982.     

African population in history]

The growth rate of the African population has been fluctuating throughout history, affected by political, social, and economic events. 6000 years ago, the majority of the population was based in North Africa, because farming had been developed there. However, between the 11th and the 16th centuries, there was a constant decline in the population of that region, due to invasions from Europe and the black plague. During the same period, the population in the area south of the Sahara grew rapidly, as people there had gone into the iron tool period and farming had been developed. From the 16th to the mid-17th Century, population growth was considerable in Africa; more people had learned the technology of irrigation, corn and potatoes had been introduced from South America, and colonialism was not yet an issue. From the mid-17th to the mid-19th Century, there was no growth, due to the slave trade and wars between tribes. One estimate sets the direct and indirect loss during this period, as a result of the slave trade, at 100 million people. From the 1850s to the end of World War I, population growth started up again, chiefly influenced by the fact that the slave trade had essentially come to a half and modern medical care had become available on the continent. However, in central Africa, the region which suffered the worst blow from the slave trade, growth was very slow, while in East Africa the population was declining because of wars between colonists and natives, as well as natural disasters. Increases in population during this period were a result of immigration from Europe and India. From the end of World War I to the present, growth has been rapid, given improvements in medical services and standards of living, while most of the former colonies became independent after the 1950s. Consequently, almost all African countries are under great pressure now with regard to their populations.     

Wuxi's pilot population census has laid the foundation for carrying out the Third National Population Census]

In order to lay the foundation for the third national population census, a pilot population census was conducted in Wuxi city, Jiangsu Province in 1980. One goal of this pilot population census was to examine and revise the rules and regulations for the population census. The second goal was to collect practical experience in a population census at a local level, and the third goal was to train a group of working personnel for the national population census. Results from this local population census include information on characteristics of the population, households, and society in general, cultural and educational levels, the economic situation for the local population, marital status, child-bearing status, and the natural mobility of the population. Both the quality and quantity of this pilot population census are excellent. Success is due to an effective and healthy leadership, detailed and well-designed rules and regulations and working principles, support and cooperation from the general public, well-trained working personnel, and suitable use of modern scientific methods for the census.     

The need of population research in China

The author discusses the defective population data of China's past and the gradual, somewhat sporadic, improvements which have taken place in recent years. He draws attention to the types of population studies and data now most required, including sample censuses, adequate vital registration, studies of internal migration, of the relation of population density to developed resources, and of ethnic minorities in China. In addition to these contemporary questions, historical inquiries are also needed to produce, as far as possible, a reliable and coherent account of population trends in Chinese history.     

Change of population policy and the population situation in China]

A correct population policy is very crucial to the solution of the population problem, economic development, and social progress. The real situation in China now is a large population, a high rate of population growth, and low level of productivity. Facing this situation, China's population policy should include control of population growth in quantity, a promotion of population quality, and a match between population growth and social and economic development for the final realization of the Four Modernizations. In recent years, under the leadership of the National Committee on Family Planning, together with cooperation from various offices at the local level, a great change has taken place in China's population situation. The fertility rate has declined gradually, and late marriage, delayed births, and a reduced number of births have also become popular. A change in the age structure of the population has also slowed the pace of population growth. A reduction in the ratio of women of childbearing age is also helpful in the control of population growth, and the natural growth rate for the population has declined. This change shows that family planning is working in China and great results have been achieved. To come closer to the national goal of population control, practical work should be focused on rural areas. The rural population constitutes about 80% of total population and the fertility rate in rural areas is much higher than that of the cities. If population control can be achieved in the rural areas, the overall goal of population control for the country can then be achieved more easily.     

The population situation in Africa]

The population growth rate in Africa has been the highest in the world since 1970--about 2.7% annually. A lower mortality rate because of better health conditions, their tradition of early marriage and polygamy, and the predominantly agricultural economy are the main reasons. The lack of coordination of such rapid population growth with the slow economic development and backward industrial and agricultural conditions have caused a very serious unemployment problem and inhibit increases in the living standard. The vast areas of desert and equatorial forest are sparsely inhabited. The coastline, Nile delta, and the plateaus are the most densely populated areas of the world. The abnormally developed cities cause expansion of the urban population and serious problems in employment, housing, traffic, health, and education. Many leaders of African countries have begun to realize the seriousness of the rapid population growth, and a few have begun family planning programs. Most countries have no official policies concerning population control and a few even encourage population growth.