Coming Closer in Adolescence: Convergence in Mother,Father, and Adolescent Reports of Parenting

Parent–child relationships change during adolescence. Furthermore, parents and adolescents perceive parenting differently. We examined the changes in perceptions of parental practices in fathers, mothers, and adolescents during adolescence. Furthermore, we investigated if fathers', mothers', and adolescents' perceptions converge during adolescence. Following 497 families across six waves (ages 13–18), we investigated the development of parental support and behavioral control using mother and father self‐reports, and adolescent reports for mothers and fathers. We found curvilinear decrease for support and control. Parent–adolescent convergence emerged over the 6 years: those with higher intercepts had a steeper decrease, whereas correlations among parent and adolescent reports increased. This multi‐informant study sheds light on the development of parent–adolescent convergence on perceptions of parenting.     

Examining the Quality of Adolescent–Parent Relationships Among Chilean Families

The purpose of this study was to examine if adolescents’ reports of warm and harsh parenting practices by their mothers and fathers varied as a function of demographic, youth and their mothers or mother figures’ individual and family characteristics. Data are from 707 community-dwelling adolescents (mean age = 14, SD = 1.4) and their mothers or mother figures in Santiago, Chile. Having a warmer relationship with both parents was inversely associated with the adolescents’ age and positively associated with adolescents’ family involvement and parental monitoring. Both mothers’ and fathers’ harsh parenting were positively associated with adolescent externalizing behaviors and being male and inversely associated with youth autonomy and family involvement. These findings suggest that net of adolescent developmental emancipation and adolescent behavioral problems, positive relationships with parents, especially fathers, may be nurtured through parental monitoring and creation of an interactive family environment, and can help to foster positive developmental outcomes.     

Trajectories of Parenting During Infancy: The Role of Infant Temperament and Marital Adjustment for Mothers and Fathers

Although it is well accepted that parents greatly impact infant development, it is less clear which factors impact change in quantity and quality of parenting across infancy. This longitudinal study (N = 120 families) investigated how infant temperament and marital adjustment related to trajectories of mother and father involvement and sensitivity across infancy using multilevel models. Parental involvement (caregiving and play), infant temperament (surgency, negative affectivity, regulation), and marital adjustment were assessed from questionnaires when the infant was 3, 5, 7, 12, 14, and 20 months of age; parental sensitivity was coded from two episodes of the Still‐Face Paradigm in early infancy (3, 5, and 7 months). On average, mothers showed higher levels of caregiving, play, and sensitivity than fathers. Mother caregiving, play, and sensitivity increased over time. Father caregiving and play also increased over time, whereas sensitivity did not change with age. Happier marriages were related to increased play for both mothers and fathers. Infant surgency was also significantly related to caregiving, play, and sensitivity trajectories for mothers but not fathers. Findings are discussed in relation to parenting roles and family dynamics.     

Mothers' and Fathers' Well‐Being in Parenting Across the Arch of Child Development

Limited research on parental well‐being by child age suggests that parents are better off with very young children despite intense time demands of caring for them. This study uses the American Time Use Survey Well‐Being Module (N = 18,124) to assess how parents feel in activities with children of different ages. Results show that parents are worse off with adolescent children relative to young children. Parents report the lowest levels of happiness with adolescents relative to younger children, and mothers report more stress and less meaning with adolescents. Controlling for contextual features of parenting including activity type, solo parenting, and restorative time does not fully account for the adolescent disadvantage in fathers' happiness or mothers' stress. This study highlights adolescence as a particularly difficult stage for parental well‐being and shows that mothers shoulder stress that fathers do not, even after accounting for differences in the context of their parenting activities.     

A Meta-analysis of Parental Satisfaction,Adjustment, and Conflict in Joint Custody and Sole Custody Following Divorce

The literature on parental satisfaction, adjustment, and relitigation in joint custody (JC) versus sole custody (SC) following divorce is reviewed. Findings are summarized for custody differences in parental demographics; time spent with father; the father–child relationship; parental satisfaction with custody; parental adjustment, including self-esteem and parenting stress or burden; conflict between ex-spouses; and relitigation. JC was associated with equivalent or better outcomes than SC in the father–child relationship, parenting stress, parental conflict and relitigation, and overall adjustment. Satisfaction with custody is greatest for both mothers and fathers when they have SC, less in JC, and least for noncustodial parents. Future researchers need larger, more representative samples followed over time.     

Adolescent Attachment Trajectories With Mothers and Fathers: The Importance of Parent–Child Relationship Experiences and Gender

This longitudinal study investigated how attachment with mothers and fathers changes during adolescence, and how gender and parent–child relationship experiences are associated with attachment trajectories. The relative importance of specific positive and negative relationship experiences on attachment trajectories was also examined. An initial sample of 223 adolescents reported on relationship experiences and attachment avoidance and anxiety with mothers and fathers in Grades 6, 8, 10, and 12 (final N = 110; M_age = 11.90 years at onset, SD = .43). Mothers and fathers reported on relationship experiences with adolescents. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that security with parents increased during adolescence. Positive relationship experiences (companionship, satisfaction, approval, support) predicted increases in security, and negative experiences (pressure, criticism) predicted decreases in security. Females reported less avoidance than males.     

The Association Between Social Competence in Adolescents and Mothers’ Parenting Style: A Cross Sectional Study on Iranian Girls

This study is to determine the association between parenting style of mothers and the social competence of their adolescent daughters in effective communication, problem solving skills and use of basic social skills dimensions. The data were gathered for the mean age of 11–15 years on 737 Iranian adolescent girls in a cross sectional study design. The parenting style of mothers was based on their demand and responsiveness. These scales classified mothers into four parenting styles as follows: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful. The social competence was also categorized into effective relationship, problem solving skills, use of basic social skills dimensions. The mean scores of the adolescents’ social competence whose mothers had permissive and authoritative parenting style was higher than that for the two other groups for all the dimensions (p < 0.05). The results showed that with the expectation of controlling roles, the supportive role of mothers can be more effective in providing opportunities for social competence performance.     

Keeping Mum: Characteristics and Family Dynamics of Mothers Who Are Liable to Pay Child Support in Australia

In recent decades, changes in post‐separation parenting arrangements in Australia have led to an increase in the small but significant group of mothers liable to pay child support to fathers. The present study uses data from the Child Support Reform Study, a national random sample of separated parents in Australia registered with the Child Support Agency (CSA) in 2008. In total, 185 mothers with a child support liability were identified. Drawing on reports from separated mothers and fathers liable to pay child support in 2008, the study found that 43% of liable mothers had shared or more time. Few liable mothers reported spending no time with their child in the previous 12 months. Unlike liable fathers, mothers with a child support liability tended to be more ‘fearful’ of their former partner; have a resident child in their household; work fewer hours in paid employment; and have older children. Liable mothers were also more likely than other separated mothers to describe the relationship with their former partner as ‘fearful.’ Gendered expectations of parenting mean that liable mothers and liable fathers may adopt different behavioural responses to their roles. The implications of these findings for family therapists are briefly discussed.     

Adolescents' and parents' affect in relation to discrepant perceptions of parental warmth in daily life

The current study aimed to evaluate how adolescents' and parents' perceptions of daily parenting—and their discrepancies—relate to daily parent and adolescent affect. Daily parental warmth and affect were assessed using electronic diaries in 150 American adolescent–parent dyads (61.3% females, M_age = 14.6, 83.3% White; 95.3% mothers, M_age = 43.4; 89.3% White) and in 80 Dutch adolescents with 79 mothers and 72 fathers (63.8% females, M_age = 15.9, 91.3% White; M_age = 49.0, 97.4% White). Results of preregistered models indicated that individuals' affect may be more important for perceptions of parenting than discrepancies between parent–adolescent reports of parenting for affect, stressing the need to be aware of this influence of affect on parenting reports in clinical and research settings.     

Gender,work-family conflicts,and perceived parental success: The moderating role of gender ideology

ABSTRACT

We know little about how perceptions of conflict between work and family shape the subjective views of dual-earner parents. Given time constraints and the prevalence of gendered parenting norms, gender ideologies and work-family conflicts may help explain perceived parental success. Using data from the 2002 National Study of the Changing Workforce, I explore whether gender ideology moderates how conflicts between work and family relate to perceived parental success. Among dual-earner mothers, work-to-family conflict was negatively related to perceived parental success. For dual-earner fathers, work-to-family conflict was positively associated with perceived parental success among more traditional fathers, while the opposite was the case for more egalitarian fathers. Family-to-work conflict was only negatively related to the perceived parental success of more traditional fathers. These findings suggest that gender ideologies are more central in explaining how work-family conflicts relate to fathers’ perceived parental success compared to that of mothers.     

Using video observation in the family context: The association between camera-related behaviors and parental sensitivity

Research on parental sensitivity often relies on video observation of parent–infant dyads. However, to date, no study has assessed both infants’ and parents’ interactions with the camera, and how this relates to parental sensitivity levels. This exploratory study micro-coded camera-related behaviors (CRB) by 4-month olds and their mothers and fathers on a 1-s time base, and examined the associations between those behaviors and parental sensitivity in 75 Dutch families. While parents’ CRB made up only 0.8% of total interaction time, infants’ made up 12%. Multi-level time-series analyses showed that infants’ CRB predicted mothers’. Infants’ CRB predicted fathers’ CRB, and vice versa. Maternal sensitivity was significantly lower when children looked at the camera for over one-third of total interaction time (Cohen's d = 1.26). These findings indicate further research is required to better understand how video observation might threaten ecological validity.     

Parental employment and time with children in Spain

This paper studies whether the allocation of childcare time differs across gender, parental employment and other characteristics in Spain. Results show that mothers provide substantially more care for Essential Needs Activities and Secondary Childcare than fathers, but the care for Educational Activities is similar. The analysis also shows that fathers and mothers in employment spend more time on Educational Activities than their counterparts who are not working, and that parental education generally increases childcare for Essential Needs and Educational Activities. Finally, the study suggests that ending the working day no later than 6 p.m. would significantly raise the time allocated to childcare by working parents.     

Parental Financial Assistance and Young Adults' Relationships With Parents and Well‐being

Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study examined the impact of parental financial assistance on young adults' relationships with parents and well‐being. Conditional change models were estimated to evaluate the effects of parental financial assistance reported in Wave 3 (ages 18–28) and Wave 4 (ages 24–34) of the study. The results (Ns ranged from 9,128 to 13,389 across outcomes) indicated that financial assistance was positively associated with changes in depressive symptoms and closeness to both mothers and fathers in both periods. Changes in self‐esteem were less robustly linked to parental financial assistance. Although the observed pattern with respect to parent–child relations held regardless of the progress young people had made in the transition to adulthood, the effects for well‐being, which were also relatively small in magnitude, did not. In particular, changes in depressive symptoms associated with financial assistance were concentrated among individuals occupying adult social roles.     

Experiences With Parents and Youth Physical Health Symptoms and Cortisol: A Daily Diary Investigation

Using daily diary data, this study examined the associations between positive and negative parent–youth experiences and youth cortisol and physical health symptoms among a sample of adolescents (N = 132, mean age = 13.39). On days when girls reported more negative experiences than usual, they exhibited more physical health symptoms and flatter evening cortisol slopes than usual. Negative experiences with mothers were associated with higher dinner and bedtime youth cortisol levels (between‐person). Daily positive experiences with fathers were linked with lower dinner cortisol levels. Youth with high levels of negative experiences, on average, were less sensitive to daily variation in negative experiences than youth who experienced lower parental negativity. We discuss the benefits of a daily diary approach.     

The Dyadic Effects of Supportive Coparenting and Parental Stress on Relationship Quality Across the Transition to Parenthood

The transition to first‐time parenthood can be challenging for couples. Using a sample of 848 ethnically diverse couples from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study across the first 3 years of parenthood, we investigated the longitudinal and dyadic associations of each parents’ parental stress, supportive coparenting, and relationship quality. Results from an actor–partner interdependence model indicated that supportive coparenting significantly predicted higher relationship quality for both mothers and fathers. Fathers’ supportive coparenting significantly buffered the effects of mothers’ parental stress on relationship quality. Also, the unique dyadic contexts of each parents’ supportive coparenting, and also both partners’ parental stress were significantly associated with relationship quality. Clinical implications from these findings are discussed through commonly used clinical theories.     

Challenging Parenting Behavior from Infancy to Toddlerhood: Etiology,Measurement, and Differences between Fathers and Mothers

Based on evidence that fathers show more challenging and physical play than mothers, it has been theorized that fathers have a different parenting role, more focused at stimulating exploration and taking chances. Challenging parenting behavior (CPB) may foster confidence and buffer against anxiety development in children. In this study, CPB was assessed in fathers and mothers at child ages of 4 months, 1 year, and 2.5 years, using newly developed questionnaires and observational tasks. Reliability of the questionnaire and observational measures was good, and fathers' and mothers' self‐rated CPB showed a similar factor structure. Modest and significant convergence between questionnaires and observations provided support for validity of CPB, whereas negative correlations with overprotection supported divergent validity. CPB correlated positively with warmth. We further found moderate to high stability of CPB from early infancy to toddlerhood, and interparental correspondence in CPB. Fathers and mothers did not differ in observed CPB, but fathers rated themselves higher than mothers in toddlerhood. It is concluded that the development of the instruments to assess CPB was successful. Overall, the results reveal similarities rather than differences between fathers' and mothers' CPB in early childhood. The potential relevance of CPB in child development and psychopathology is discussed.     

Parent training in foster families with children with behavior problems: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial

The present randomized controlled trial examined the four months follow-up effectiveness of Parent Management Training Oregon (PMTO) for parents with foster children (aged 4–12) with severe externalizing behavior problems in long-term foster care arrangements. The aim of PMTO, a relative long and intensive (6–9 months, with weekly sessions) parent management training is to reduce children's problem behavior through improvement of parenting practices. We specifically investigated whether PMTO is effective to reduce foster parenting stress. It was expected that PMTO would reduce parenting stress in foster parents, improve the quality of parenting practices, and reduce children's problem behavior. Multi-informant (foster mothers, foster fathers, and teachers) data were used from 86 families. Multilevel analyses based on the intention to treat principle (retention rate 73%) showed that PMTO, compared to care as usual, had no significant direct, nor indirect or sleeper effects at follow-up on parenting stress, parenting behavior and child behavior problems. Earlier reported immediate effects of PMTO on reduced parenting stress at posttest disappeared at follow-up. Additional analyses on the role of non-specific intervention factors in PMTO effects showed that higher therapist fidelity scores resulted in stronger effects of PMTO on parenting responsiveness, parental explaining and autonomy granting. Unexpectedly, higher fidelity scores also predicted less decrease of parenting stress at follow-up.     

Parent‐Adolescent Involvement: The Relative Influence of Parent Gender and Residence

The 1995 wave of the Add Health study is used to investigate the relative influence of parent gender and residence on patterns of parental involvement with adolescents. Adolescent reports (N =17,330) of shared activities, shared communication, and relationship quality with both biological parents are utilized. A multidimensional scaling analysis reveals that parent gender explains most of the variance in parent‐adolescent involvement, with residential status playing a secondary yet a fundamental role in accounting for these patterns. Resident mothers who do not live with adolescents’ biological fathers engage in the broadest range of activities with their children. Unpartnered resident fathers display patterns of parenting that are as similar to mothers as they are to other fathers.     

Family Structure Transitions and Maternal Parenting Stress

Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,176) are used to examine family structure transitions and maternal parenting stress. Using multilevel modeling, we found that mothers who exit coresidential relationships with biological fathers or enter coresidential relationships with nonbiological fathers reported higher levels of parenting stress than mothers in stable coresidential relationships. Mothers who enter coresidential relationships with biological fathers reported lower levels of parenting stress than mothers who remain single. Mothers' resources, especially their relationships with biological fathers, accounted for most of the associations between transitions and parenting stress, with posttransition resources being more important than pretransition resources. Mothers with high levels of education were less affected by transitions than mothers with less education.