Who Is Supporting Homeless Youth? Predictors of Support in Personal Networks

Homeless youth lack the traditional support networks of their housed peers, which increases their risk for poor health outcomes. Using a multilevel dyadic analytic approach, this study identified characteristics of social contacts, relationships, and social networks associated with the provision of tangible and emotional support to homeless youth (N = 419, M age = 20.09, SD = 2.80). Support providers were likely to be family members, sex partners, or non–street‐based contacts. The provision of support was also associated with contacts' employment and homelessness status, frequency of contact, shared risk behaviors, and the number of network members that were homeless and employed. The results provide insights into how homeless youth could be assisted to develop more supportive social networks.     

Predictors of Change in Self-Reported Social Networks among Homeless Young People

This research investigates changes in social network size and composition of 351 homeless adolescents over three years. Findings show that network size decreases over time. Homeless youth with a conduct disorder begin street life with small networks that remain small over time. Caregiver abuse is associated with smaller emotional networks due to fewer home ties, especially to parents, and a more rapid loss of emotional home ties over time. Homeless youth with major depression start out with small networks, but are more likely to maintain network ties. Youth with substance abuse problems are more likely to maintain instrumental home ties. Finally, homeless adolescents tend to reconnect with their parents for instrumental aid and form romantic relationship that provide emotional support.     

Abuse, support, and depression among homeless and runaway adolescents

This study examines the effectiveness of social support networks on psychological well-being among 602 homeless and runaway adolescents. The respondents were interviewed in shelters, drop-in centers, and on the streets in cities of four Midwestern states (Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas). The path model was used to test the direct effect of family abuse and precocious independence on adolescent depressive symptoms and indirect effects through social support networks. Results indicate that although abusive family origins contribute directly to depressive symptoms there are indirect effects of family abuse and early independence through social support networks. Family abuse and early independence drive homeless adolescents to rely on peers for social support. While support from friends on the street reduces depression, association with deviant peers increases depression.     

Caregiver qualities,family closeness,and the well-being of adolescents engaged in the child welfare system

Children who come into contact with the child welfare system are at greater risk of experiencing internalizing and externalizing behaviors. This secondary analysis of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being explored how caregiver characteristics and behaviors, and caregiver–child closeness influence these outcomes over time. The final sample was 877 caregiver and adolescent (11–17 years old) dyads. Weighted multivariate regression analyses were performed. Caregiver characteristics associated with depressive symptoms included age and education; caregiver health was not associated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors. For adolescents, being female, older, or Hispanic was associated with internalizing behaviors. Although not significant for externalizing behaviors, caregiver–adolescent closeness was protective against internalizing behaviors. Understanding factors that contribute to the mental health of child-welfare-exposed adolescents has far-reaching implications for family-based interventions with child-welfare-involved youth.     

How Runaway and Homeless Youth Navigate Troubled Waters: Personal Strengths and Resources

Little attention has been paid to how runaway or homeless adolescents are able to make successful transitions into adulthood. This article reports on partial findings from an exploratory study of the research question, “How do formerly runaway and homeless adolescents navigate the troubled waters of leaving home, living in high-risk environments, and engaging in dangerous behaviors, to make successful developmental transitions into young adulthood?” This qualitative study involved interviews with 12 formerly runaway or homeless youth. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative method. This paper reports on findings related to the personal strengths and resources that enabled youth to make successful transitions: learning new attitudes and behaviors, personal attributes, and spirituality. Recommendations for program development and intervention with homeless or at-risk youth are discussed.     

The experiences of adolescents and young adults residing with their families in emergency shelters in Canada

Emergency homeless shelters can be stressful environments for families. They can be associated with emotional distress and feelings of restriction for parents, and with behavioural, social, and developmental challenges for children. However, little is known about the experiences of accompanied youth residing in shelter with their families, as the literature about this age group's experiences of homelessness has mainly focused on unaccompanied youth. Findings from the current study are drawn from qualitative interviews with 16 adolescents and young adults (aged 16–21) who were homeless and living with their families in family homeless shelters in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Youth described family homeless shelters as stressful environments but also found that the shelters provided support to them and their families. Youth discussed the various strategies they used to cope in facing the challenges of shelter life. These findings add to our understanding of youth who are homeless and highlight the ways in which they adapt to the challenges of living in a family homeless shelter with their families. Recommendations are included for ways that shelter staff and policymakers can enact operational and systemic changes that could potentially improve the experiences of such youth and their families.     

A comparison of drug involvement between runaways and school youths

Problems related to homeless/runaway youths have received increased attention in recent years. Homeless/runaway youths manifest many problems in addition to being absent from home and without supervision of a parent or guardian. The purpose of the study was to determine drug use and abuse patterns of homeless/runaway youths and to compare those patterns, along with attitudes toward selected illicit behaviors, with similar data collected from adolescents in school. Data were collected from persons (n = 253) in homeless/runaway shelters in the southeast United States. Comparisons made with data from other studies of runaways and of youths in school indicate that drug use and abuse is two-three times more prevalent for runaways than with the school youths. Runaways' attitudes toward selected illicit behaviors are more tolerant than those of school youths. Intervention programs for runaway/homeless youths should reflect an understanding of the complexity of the psycho-social and behavioral history of the clients which is much different than that of those who are in school.     

Substance abuse, suicidality, and self-esteem in South African adolescents

Associations among six different domains of self-esteem (peers, school, family, sports/athletics, body image, and global self-worth) and risk behaviors related to substance use and suicidality were investigated in a sample of South African adolescents. Students enrolled in Grades 8 and 11 at independent secondary schools in Cape Town (N = 116) completed the Self-Esteem Questionnaire (SEQ) and a questionnaire that asked about their participation in a range of risk behaviors. Logistic regression analyses indicated that particular domains of self-esteem were differentially associated with indicators of alcohol, cigarette and drug use and suicidal ideation or behaviors in adolescents. Family self-esteem showed the strongest overall pattern of associations with the risk behaviors. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that interventions which aim to protect adolescents from engaging in risk behaviors by increasing their self-esteem are likely to be most effective and cost-efficient if they are aimed at the family and school domains.     

Chapter 10: Issues in HIV/AIDS Service Delivery to High Risk Youth

Homeless and runaway youth engage in behavior that puts them at risk for infection with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Prevalence of HIV disease in homeless and runaway youth is higher than it is among other adolescents. In addition, homeless and runaway youth are often forced to engage in sex as a means of survival. Although they engage in high risk behavior, AIDS education programs have neglected them as a target group for education. To some extent, they have been included in other more general categories of persons with AIDS risk behaviors, such as men who have sex with men or intravenous drug users. However, the number of adolescents receiving age-specific HIV/AIDS information is far below the number infected (Hein et al., 1992). Often high risk youth are disenfranchised, having been forced from home by their families after disclosing their gay or lesbian identities. Lacking a political voice and having no spokesperson, they represent a group with complex unmet needs. These youth typically have immediate needs for food, shelter, and clothing. In addition, they often need medical management, mental health and drug counseling, crisis management, and HIV/AIDS information. These needs are often overwhelming to the agencies that serve youth. This article examines the barriers and issues that exist in providing services to high risk youth. Then, suggsetions for removing those barriers by empowering both service providers and youth are offered. Some of the suggestions are based upon the authors' own experience in providing HIV/AIDS in-service training to service providers to high risk youth. The article makes recommendations for policy on youth and HIV/AIDS.     

Homelessness,housing instability,intimate partner violence,mental health,and functioning: A multi-year cohort study of IPV survivors and their children

Abstract

Homelessness and housing instability frequently accompany intimate partner violence and can negatively impact health and functioning. When children are exposed to homelessness or housing instability their ability to develop and function is compromised. The purpose of this study is to examine the differential impact of homelessness and unstable housing on health and functioning of women and their children over a 2-year period. Two hundred and seventy-seven mothers reporting intimate partner violence (stalking, physical, or sexual violence by an intimate partner) were asked about housing stability, abuse, risk for murder, mental health, employment/wages, and their child's functioning over a 2-year period. Outcomes of mothers reporting homelessness and unstable housing were compared to mothers reporting stable housing. Over one-third (36%) of the mothers reported at least one episode of unstable housing over the 2-year period and 11% reported homelessness. Measures of maternal mental health and child functioning were worse for both unstably housed and homeless women, compared to stably housed women, with a higher risk for sexual abuse and risk for murder for homeless women. New models of rapid rehousing are needed that address not only the housing problems of women who have experienced intimate partner violence but also the mental health and safety issues that the women and their children face.     

Family Structure,Family Processes,and Adolescent Smoking and Drinking

This study examined whether family structure was associated with adolescent risk behaviors, including smoking and drinking. Family living arrangements have become increasingly diverse, yet research on adolescent risk behaviors has typically relied on measures of family structure that do not adequately capture this diversity. Data from the 1994–1995 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used to conduct logistic regression analyses that revealed adolescents in two biological married parent families were least likely to smoke or drink, whereas adolescents in cohabiting stepfamilies were most likely. Those in single‐mother families and married stepfamilies were in between. Maternal socialization was related to reduced odds of smoking and drinking. Maternal modeling was positively associated with smoking and drinking. Family structure is indicative of distinct family processes that are linked to risky behaviors among adolescents.     

Sociodemographic and maternal behaviors in younger and older pregnant adolescents

Sociodemographic and maternal behaviors were examined in a group of 295 (59%) younger adolescents 10–17 years of age, and compared to a group of older adolescents over 18 (n=203, 41%). Younger adolescents were more likely to be single, of minority group status, family dependent, and poor users of contraceptives. Older adolescents had higher rates of substance abuse, treated psychiatric problems, and abortion histories. Both groups reported parental drinking problems, parental divorce, and poverty. Health indicators did not show differences between groups, although older adolescents had higher than national average low birth weight babies. The age of first pregnancy was markedly lower for the younger than older teen. These findings support the need for prevention strategies in treatment programs.     

Predictors of self‐reported sexually transmitted diseases among homeless and runaway adolescents

Path analysis was used to investigate factors associated with self‐reported sexually transmitted diseases among 569 homeless and runaway adolescents in four Midwestern states. Youth were interviewed by outreach workers directly on the streets, in shelters, and in drop‐in centers. Results indicated that family abuse was positively related to substance use, affiliation with friends who sold sex, and time on own. Early family abuse indirectly increased the likelihood of self‐reported sexually transmitted diseases through time on own, substance use, friends selling sex, and risky sexual behaviors. Finally, substance use and affiliation with friends who sold sex was positively associated with risky sexual behaviors, which in turn was related to self‐reported sexually transmitted diseases. No significant gender interactions were found for this model.     

Social networks and sexual risk factor differences between cisgender heterosexual and cisgender LGBQ homeless youths

ABSTRACT

Cisgender lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer/questioning (LGBQ) homeless youths are more likely to engage in sexual risk behaviors relative to cisgender heterosexual homeless youths. Homeless youths (N = 1,046) were recruited and surveyed from three drop-in centers in Los Angeles, California. This study assessed differences in demographics, background experiences, and perceived social network norms in order to understand the disparities in rates of unprotected sex and concurrent sex between these two subgroups. Results indicate significant differences in engagement in risk factors as well as social network norms. Findings provide support for tailored sexual risk-reduction interventions that cater specifically to LGBQ homeless youths.     

Identity in transition: how formerly homeless individuals negotiate identity as they move into housing

It is unclear what happens when stigmatized individuals undergo status transitions into non-stigmatized groups. This paper explores changes in housing status, identity, and social relationships over time and their impact on formerly homeless individuals. Drawing on longitudinal qualitative interview data collected over six months from seven individuals transitioning out of homelessness and into government supported housing, this paper examines identity changes during such a status shift. Analysis shows that individuals distanced themselves from both homeless and formerly homeless people, and connected with others through groups not affiliated with homelessness or shelter life. When exiting a stigmatized status, like homelessness, social distancing may be particularly important as it helps redefine the self as apart from that previously held stigmatized status. Implications for research and policy are discussed.     

Psychosocial Problems Associated With Homelessness in Sexual Minority Youths

Sexual minorities are overrepresented among homeless youths, and this is often related to reactions to their status as sexual minorities. While on the streets, they are at increased risk for victimization, substance and alcohol use, sexual risk behaviors, and mental health issues compared to homeless heterosexual youths. This article uses ecological systems theory to examine psychosocial problems associated with homelessness among sexual minority youths and reviews empirical literature examining outcomes related to homeless sexual minority youths including mental health, substance use, and sexual risk behavior. Implications for social work are discussed including practice, policy, and suggestions for future studies.     

Construction of Social Reality During Early Adolescence: Can Expecting Storm and Stress Increase Real or Perceived Storm and Stress?

This study examines whether mothers' or adolescents' expectations concerning “storm and stress” behaviors at adolescence predict subsequent real or perceived adolescent behavior and attributes during the early years of adolescence. The study used a short‐term longitudinal design. Participants were 6th‐ and 7th‐grade adolescents and their mothers (N=270 families). Data were collected via telephone interviews and questionnaires at 2 time points approximately 1 year apart. Results indicated that adolescents' expectations for risk‐taking/rebelliousness and for alienation and mothers' expectations for risk‐taking/rebelliousness predicted increases in corresponding adolescent‐reported outcomes over the 1‐year period. Results are most consistent with the possibility of perceptual biases with respect to storm and stress behaviors, but could indicate the existence of self‐fulfilling prophecies, particularly for risk‐taking/rebelliousness.     

The Community Context of Family Structure and Adolescent Drug Use

Using data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), this article investigates a number of hypotheses used to explain the relationship between family structure and adolescent drug use. In particular, using linked community‐level data, an explicit examination of hypotheses drawn from a community‐context model is conducted. These hypotheses posit that the impact of family structure on adolescent behavior is, in part, explained by the different types of communities within which families reside and that community characteristics moderate the impact of family structure on drug use. The results of multilevel regression models fail to support these hypotheses; adolescents who reside in single‐parent or stepparent families are at heightened risk of drug use irrespective of community context. Moreover, adolescents who reside in single father families are at risk of both higher levels of use and increasing use over time. A significant community‐level effect involves jobless men: Adolescents are at increased risk of drug use if they reside in communities with a higher proportion of unemployed and out‐of‐workforce men.     

How Runaway and Homeless Youth Navigate Troubled Waters: The Role of Formal and Informal Helpers

Most adolescents navigate the transition from adolescence to young adulthood with relative success. However, runaway and homeless youth experience formidable obstacles in their paths and engage in dangerous behaviors that threaten their well being and long-term prospects. This study is part of a larger exploratory research effort aimed at understanding how runaway and homeless adolescents navigate the troubled waters of their adolescence to make successful developmental transitions into young adulthood. The focus of this paper is to report findings related to the formal and informal helping resources that enable runaway and homeless youth to resolve difficulties, deal with hazards, and achieve some level of self-defined success in young adulthood. This study utilized a qualitative research design, and the primary data collection method was in-depth interviews with 12 formerly runaway and homeless young people. The constant comparative method was used to analyze the data. Evidence emerged regarding who provided help, the types of help provided, conditions that facilitated acceptance of help, and advice to helping professionals. The findings illustrate the experiences youth had with helpers that they found valuable and experiences they perceived as detrimental.