论胡塞尔的"还原"思想与"构成"思想的关系

胡塞尔的思想,从<逻辑研究>时期到先验现象学阶段,再到后期的"生活世界"理论,始终贯穿着"悬搁"的思路.先验现象学的特点是,通过"悬搁"的彻底化,剥离出完全独立于自然世界、又构成着后者的纯粹意识,实现哲学的绝对的自身奠基,并释放出<逻辑研究>未达到的自身(被)构成的现象世界.这个思路的问题是,由于隐蔽地受制于胡塞尔力图克服的"自然"态度,因而从广义上说来,还原仍只是悬搁某一现成者,回到另一更微妙些的现成者,因此未充分地实现"构成"的思想.     

胡塞尔哲学的一般方法

胡塞尔哲学是一种主体性哲学 ,这种哲学通过悬搁的方法 ,把意识与对象的关系引入了自我的意向化关系 ,并在意向化关系中建立了认识体系。     

传统形而上学重建的合法性根基——20世纪西方哲学家走出现代性困境的路径选择

传统本体论哲学的最终目的是通过不断的"还原"获得对世界统一性的认识.这种"还原"的思维方式存在着明显的不足,主要表现为:第一,它以虚幻的、抽象的概念来把握"流动的实在",势必扼杀事物的丰富性,从而造成对事物的歪曲;第二,它注重外在对象的客体,却忽视了人自身存在的主体,从而使人的主体性、创造性、人的自由和尊严被消解在思辨的形而上学体系中.正是因为传统本体论哲学自身存在的局限性,加之实证主义的泛化,使得追求绝对基础和确定性的形而上学不可避免地衰落了.20世纪西方的一些哲学家致力于形而上学的重建工作,努力为形而上学寻找新的合法性基础,并以此作为解决现代性困境的根本途径.后形而上学不再追求超验的、确定的绝对基础,而是立足于内在的神圣性或生活世界,将意义还俗化,并将其界定为一个不断被发现的流动的过程.     

理解自我:文学解读的意义

关于文学解读的意义,传统的观点是把它归结为认识世界和满足交流的欲望。这种观点显然没有把读者的自我考虑到解读的意义中去。如果我们承认文学解读是读者的一种主体性的生命活动,那么解读就一定是为了读者自身的理由,即理解自我。     

作为思想的形而上学

思想是人类的能力和本性,思想的本性是永恒的否定和超越,思想的本性即是人的形而上学本性。以思想的方式把握世界,世界即是思想中的世界,时代就是思想中的时代。反思思想内容的基本逻辑规定,就是揭示存在和世界的本质。逻辑学即形而上学,思想是形而上学的秘密。思想形而上学的界限是以思想的形式把握世界的界限。表象、情感、意志和实践态度的把握世界的方式,亦有自身的真理和价值。所以,当代哲学超越形而上学的思想或后形而上学思想,根本问题在于寻求一种“非规定性的思”,或使思想得以可能的“存在”、“无”或“他者”。     

从实践哲学的视域看马克思人学思想的独特性

马克思由实践观变革实现了哲学观的变革,他认为实践是作为自然存在物的人类自我创造、自我完善的活动,同任何形而上学的存在无关。从这种实践观出发,马克思创立的哲学是实践的人类学,它不同于实践的形而上学,也不同于先验的人类学,包括社会批判理论和社会发展理论两方面的内容。     

对逻辑实证主义"拒斥形而上学"的批判

逻辑实证主义的科学观实质上是科学本身的发展观,它只是相对于传统哲学而言的一种新的哲学态度。它是对何以作为科学事实或科学真理的一种哲学思考。逻辑实证主义的科学观倡导:科学的客观真理只允许确认事实,要求科学必须排除一切价值判断,因此“形而上学”必须排除,既而哲学应该是严格意义上的科学。从逻辑实证主义理论自身的发展来看,逻辑实证主义者们都力图排除形而上学,使哲学科学化,但是他们最终无法建立具有普遍性的科学观,因而使理论自身陷入不可走出的困境。逻辑实证主义从经验证实原则出发来企图获得绝对真理的努力是不可能获得成功的。科学虽然是人类理性的事业,但作为理性的承载者的人的价值和信仰也是不可排除出去的。科学本身就包含着人的价值等非理性因素,因而作为认识论的科学观必然要包含“形而上学”。     

民族主体性的中国表达式——一个中国传统哲学范畴的现代体贴

中国哲学曾以"觉解"范畴浓缩了儒、释、道的传统,并且将其凝练为民族自我意识的思维方式。作为现代民族主体性的中国表达式,当代哲学语境中的"觉解"不仅来自于它的历史,而且来自于中西思维方式差异的现代反思。它拒绝了用外在的、永恒的本质限定民族主体的形而上学方法,在认定民族本质的多重性和多样性前提下,力求从民族生存方式的历史变化中去把握民族的历史的和具体的本性,以此来体现学术方式和生命智慧相融合的思想欲求。在这种欲求中,它的目力所及是民族主体的生长空间,它的内容是民族主体在当代社会中所获得的主体性。在民族主体性的现代觉解中,"民族"被视为在自我追求中不断否定自身、超越自身的自由自觉的存在,而"民族主体性"则被理解为如何在民族特质的时代标定中会通他族智慧、书写族群身份、构筑和彰显人类精神的基本过程。     

黑格尔的思辨哲学何以能够抵御怀疑主义的挑战?

从古至今,怀疑主义总是像一个幽灵一样纠缠着哲学家,并被视为哲学的一个可怕对手,而黑格尔基于思辨思维——怀疑主义的一种自我扬弃——的思辨哲学之所以能够抵御怀疑主义,即阿格里巴的“五式”的挑战,原因在于：首先,黑格尔思辨哲学的开端是作为主体与客体、思维与存在、有限与无限之统一的绝对,它既是开端也是终点,由此构成一个圆圈,而思辨哲学就是绝对或事情本身自身生命的展开过程或完成过程,即真理自身的运动(回应“无穷倒退”、“假设”和“循环论证”);其次,思辨哲学在一个科学体系中对绝对加以描述,即诸哲学主张或诸意识形态或诸概念本身的自我发展或自我扬弃所构成的序列,并把这个体系理解为思维本身的一种发展,即绝对思维作为体系,是对绝对思维本身作为起点、展开进程和终点的整体把握,而思辨哲学的展开方式则是辩证法,即事情本身的过程(回应“意见分歧”和“相对性”)。     

历史学:符号与意象的投射——史学现代化的精神契机与主体内蕴

自从胡塞尔的“现象学”、卡西尔的“符号论”和伽达默尔的“解释学”问世以来,当代文化哲学走向深广的主体性世界,并赋予各人文学科以更加丰富多样的意义。历史学作为人类观照自身往昔历程的符号活动,应当着重透过符号层来把握什么内涵?史学家的主体性又如何在其中合情合理地得到体现?历史的主体意义或变革动力又在何处?本文将根据经典作家的有关论断并结合现代史学的“意象分析”理论,对上述问题作以探讨。     

Considering Improvisation: Play,Transitional Space,and Discovery

This article explores the concept of improvisation in the therapeutic setting as a complex construction when elaborated in the idiom of jazz music. A composite clinical case is offered that illustrates an impasse and how improvisational thinking offers a way forward. Improvisation has recently been conceptualized through the metaphor of theater improvisation, dance, and rhythm. The therapeutic hour is considered an improvisational dialogue with the main theme (melody) and counter melodies, and harmonic possibilities that underlie the rhythmic pulse of the hour. Improvisation requires a reflective/interpretive process that draws on patterns, structures, and experiences reformulated in the relational field of the participants. The client initiates the call and response pattern, from which improvisation emerges as a mutual process of discovery. A more relaxed, receptive, and reflective posture extends Winnicott’s 1971 notion of play to integrate classic understanding and relational interaction.     

Objective Tests versus Subjective tests

objective test has only one correct answer, while subjective test has a range of possible answers. Because of this feature, reliability will not be difficult to achieve in the marking of the objective item, while the marking of the subjective items is reliable. On the whole, a good test must contain both subjective and objective test items.     

Comments on the National College English Test

College English Test is an important national test for Chinese college students, this paper introduces the distribution of scores, time of examination, and analyses the four parts in CET ,such as listening comprehension, reading comprehension, integrated testing, and writing based on testing theories.     

Social security reforms in Kenya: Towards a workerist or a citizenship‐based system?

With social security provisions in Kenya remaining under‐reported in the more recent literature, this overview covers recent reforms in key areas of the country's social security system. In the health sector and in old‐age pension provision social security is still mainly workerist (biased toward those in formal employment), and attempts to expand coverage have had limited effect only – cash transfer programmes, for instance, have been expanded but in practice they do not universally cover the entitled categories. Thus, although the Kenyan social security system now has a considerable pro‐poor social assistance component it remains biased toward those in formal employment, to the benefit of the highest income quintile.     

Abstracts of theses: Smith College School for Social Work,July 1954

Abstract

Many clients relate in ways that elicit emotional responses in practitioners and may also feel pressure to intervene when appropriate action is not yet clear. Practitioners must develop sufficient self-awareness so their own reactions do not interfere with the work they do with clients. Educators exhort their students to be self-aware, but locating methods that foster the capacity can be difficult. Infant observation is an elegant training model that helps to develop self-awareness. The method described here makes use of regular observation, supportive small groups, and repeated detailed examination of what is seen in training both generalist and specialized practitioners. It has become a prototype for the observational study of several kinds of specific populations. Because it attends to people in their own environments and demonstrates a flexible, reflective, multi-modal manner of information-gathering, infant observation is particularly useful in the education of social work practitioners.     

India's Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act: Assessing the quality of access and adequacy of benefits in MGNREGS public works

The extension of social protection to all has become a central policy objective, both nationally and internationally. A considerable number of middle‐ and low‐income countries have undertaken substantial efforts to extend social protection, while the international community reaffirmed its commitment to the extension of social protection through the adoption of the ILO Recommendation concerning National Floors of Social Protection, No. 202 (2012). This article reviews the legal provisions and the implementation of the Indian Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), legislated in 2005, and does so in the light of the more recent provisions of ILO Recommendation No. 202. Since its introduction ten years ago, MGNREGA has provided a source of income to rural workers, increased wage rates, achieved high female participation rates and created durable assets. India's local governance bodies, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), have been empowered and involved in the processes of planning and monitoring. However, despite successes, there have been considerable shortcomings in implementation. This article highlights two central themes: first, the innovative policy framework of the Act, which brings together rights‐based entitlements, demand‐driven employment, and citizen‐centred monitoring. Second, it assesses the accessibility and adequacy of benefits in the implementation of MGNREGA. We conclude that MGNREGA offers potential for South‐South learning, both in terms of policy‐design and implementation.     

The gender gap in pensions in Latin America

Lower female lifetime labour market participation rates, greater interruptions during their working lives, and wage gaps contribute to create gender gaps in pensions at the time of retirement. The design of social security systems may reinforce or attenuate these gaps. This article provides new evidence on gender gaps in access to pensions and in pension income in four Southern Cone countries in Latin America and analyses their evolution between 2000 and 2013, showing significant improvements in both gaps, with differential patterns by countries. The decrease in the gender gap in pension income has been particularly significant in Argentina and Brazil. In both cases, the largest increases in pension values during the period correspond to the lowest income percentiles, where women are overrepresented. The application of redistributive policies in these countries, aimed at reducing poverty and inequality but not necessarily focused on gender equity, has had positive and probably unintended consequences in terms of reduction in gender gaps in pensions.     

From “Either‐Or” to “When and How”: A Context‐Dependent Model of Culture in Action

In this article, I outline a framework for the sociological study of culture that connects three intertwined elements of human culture (cultural motivations, resources, and meanings) and demonstrates the concrete contexts under which each most critically influences actions and their subsequent outcomes. In contrast to models that cast motivations, resources, and meanings as competing explanations of how culture affects action, I argue that these are fundamental constituent elements of culture that are inseparable, interdependent, and simultaneously operative. Which element provides the strongest link to action, and how this link operates, must be understood as a function of the actor's position within wider social contexts. I argue that on average motivations have the most discernable link to action within a social strata, cultural resources provide the strongest link across strata, and meanings have the greatest direct influence when codified and sanctioned. I then offer a reframing and synthesis that reintegrates previously “competing” theories of culture into a more holistic context‐dependent model of culture in action. Finally, I use evidence from prior empirical research, as well as new data from an ongoing ethnographic study of health behaviors among the aged, to show how various elements of culture are concretely linked to action in eight different social contexts. In doing so, I provide a roadmap for the transition out of the “either‐or” logic underlying much of cultural theory and reemphasize the importance of the classical sociological concern for “when” and “how” various aspects of culture influence action and outcomes in concrete social contexts.     

A Man Can be Destroyed but Not Defeated

Santiago,the main hero in the Old Man and the Sea is characterized as someone struggling against defeat. He has gone eighty-four days without catching a fish,the sail of his skiff resembles "the flag of permanent defeat." But the old man refuses defeat at every turn:he resolves to sail out beyond the other fishermen to where the biggest fish promise to be. He lands the marlin,tying his record of eighty-seven days after a brutal three-day fight,and he continues to ward off sharks from stealing his prey,even though he knows the battle is useless. He establishes a great hero:a man can be destroyed but not defeated.