论人类语言的本质：兼评Bickerton（1995）的语言观

人类语言的本质问题似乎是语言研究的一个古老而永恒的话题。不少语言学家和哲学家曾通过对比人类语言与动物交际系统的区别，探讨人类语言区别于动物交际系统的一些内部结构特征。本文通过总结Bickerton（1995）的有关阐述，讨论人类语言与动物交际系统的本质区别。笔者认为，人类语言的复杂性是任何动物交际系统都无法比拟的，其中句法（syntax）是人类语言所特有的结构体系，它体现了“人类语言的核心”，是“人脑的一种内部机制”（Bickerton1995）。至于人类语言（句法）的起源，需要我们去探求的方面还很多。目前，句法的起源仍是一个谜。     

自我中心化思维探源

人类思维的发生学表明,人类思维是在“动物变人的某个重要环节上产生的”,萌芽式的人类思维一经产生,就与实践活动的演进并驾齐驱,演示出一条“认识自己构成自己的道路”。不论是这条道路的源头还是余尾,都伴随着一种被皮亚杰称作“自我中心”的东西,这就是自我中心化思维。一、原始思维自我中心化的生发机制探究原始思维自我中心化生发机制的方法论基础,是恩格斯的下述洞察:“正如母腹内的胚胎发展史,仅仅是我们的动物祖先从虫豸开始的几百万年的肉体发展史的一个缩影一样,孩童的精神发展是我们的动物祖先……智力发展的一个缩影。”①既然个体思维的发生、发展是整个人类精神进化的缩影,既然认识的个体发生和族类发生之间存在着     

生态化：经济社会发展观上的一场革命

生态化：经济社会发展观上的一场革命付丽芬，刘福森一、两种“环境”问题全面地看，人类所面临的环境问题应当包括两个方面：（１）天然环境。就其本质来说，这种环境不能满足人的生存需要。我们知道，动物与环境是天然统一的，即天然的环境能够满足动物的生存需要。而人...     

Guanxilization or categorization： psychological mechanisms contributing to the formation of the Chinese concept of ＂us＂

中国社会心理学在面对急速的社会变迁中,需要以变迁与文化的视角来选择研究问题,而中国社会文化中群己关系的社会心理机制,即“我们”概念的形成机制及其转换的可能与条件,正是一个体现着双重视角的基本问题。对这一问题的探讨不仅有助于解释社会凝聚力、群体行动的逻辑,讨论国家与个人、社会与个人、类别与个人的关系;也有助于培植社会转型时期的社会心理资源和社会支持系统,从而促进社会合作。与以往单～机制的分析框架不同,通过对两个个案的讨论,研究提出了一个新的分析框架,即：中国人“我们’概念是在社会情境的启动和价值取向等因素影响之下,经由相互交织的“关系化”与“类别化”双重过程形成的。     

思维、语言与现代人类形成──从直立人进化的“体质形态不平衡”现象谈起

当我们从动物进化的一般趋势考察直立人进化时发现,并不存在人类学家所说的"体质不平衡"现象,相反,人类大脑的超常发展打破了动物进化的常规形态,呈现一种从相对正常向超常状态发展的变化。导致这种特殊发展的原因除了制造工具的劳动外,还有思维和言语的互动发展,它们与劳动行为共同构成了推动人类形成的复合动力系统,并使得动物进化中已有的大脑扩大化倾向更加突出地发展起来。这一点正是现代人类形成的奥秘。     

当代世界环境伦理学理论之比较

目前,环境伦理学已经形成了一套相当独特的理论,按照其道德关怀和调节的范围从人与人的关系扩大到人与动植物、人与大自然的关系的顺序来看,它可以分为:人类中心论、动物中心论、生物中心论和生态中心论。其中,动物中心论主张关怀动物的苦乐感受,生物中心论则将其道德考虑扩及所有的生命,生态中心论则要求人类“像山那样思考”,虚己而统观自然。作为个体主义的环境伦理学,动物中心论认为所有的动物都是平等的,是否应该受到保护与该动物所属的物种无关,也与该动物所属物种的个体数量的多少无关。如果感受能力相等的话,它们受到的道德关怀就应该相等。整体主义的大地伦理理论正好相反,它以物种的濒危程度和对生态系统的贡献为标准。濒危物种的个体对该物种的存续和整个生态系统的意义更大,因此更值得重视。动物解放主义和大地伦理学虽然同属于环境伦理学,但它们在理论上和实践上都是完全不同的。     

历史的创造者·创造力·创造条件

文章围绕究竟谁是历史创造者这一史学理论界极为关注的问题进行了论述。认为弄清这一问题,决不能仅仅局限于对经典作家的有关论述进行的考证和诠释,而应以科学探索的精神,本着实践的观点、发展的观点和创造的观点把对这一问题的研究推向前进。作者通过对氏族社会向早期国家演变过程的探讨,认为被称之为“人民群众”的集团和“英雄”的集团都在各自创造着自己的历史,尽管这两种历史是相互对立的,但人类历史就是这种矛盾的统一体。人类创造历史的过程,正是人类为达到这一目的而形成历史活动的合力意志的过程。     

政治经济学研究对象的系统探索

任何一门科学的创立和发展,都依赖于既有的理论水平和社会需要。对于长期以来争论不休的政治经济学的研究对象问题,也必须从理论发展和实际需要这两个方面来进行探讨。各种不同形态的社会生产都是一般与特殊的统一。所谓生产一般,狭义地说,就是劳动过程,因而首先是人类为了自身的需要而同自然之间进行的物质变换过程,广义地说,是指整个社会生产的一般的物质内容和条件。所谓生产特殊,则是指与一定的物质基础相适应的特定的社会生产形式。因此,马克思在1857—1858年经济学手稿中指出:“摆在面前的对象,首先是物质生产”,即“生产一般”或“生产过程一般”。资产阶级生产“事实上是我们研究的本题”。同时马克思阐明了社会生产过程是由相互作用的四个要素——生     

全球化背景下的文化和文艺理论研究

20世纪90年代以来,“全球化”(globalization)成了人文学者和文化界谈论得最多的话题之一。经济全球化给人类生存方式、文化价值观念和文学活动带来何种影响,相应的解决办法如何,正成为国际学术理论界的前沿话题。越来越多的学者认识到,中国学术界应当就经济全球化对文化、文学和人类生活的影响提出自己的解答,并需要就这一迫切而重要的现实问题加强与国际学术理论界的平等交流和对话。围绕着“全球化”与中国文化、文学研究关系的讨论方兴未艾。     

劳动和语言的交往学解读——恩格斯《劳动在从猿到人转变过程中的作用》中的交往观

恩格斯《劳动在从猿到人转变过程中的作用》一文，阐述了劳动实践，以及在劳动实践基础上形成的语言与人类产生、发展的因果性联系；从交往学视角来解读，可以看到在人类产生初期，交往与劳动实践一起共同促进人类的进化、语言的产生和社会的形成，体现了交往理论中“主体-客体”、“主体-主体”模式的演变过程。     

What is Peace Psychology the Psychology of?

Peace psychology emerged as a distinct area of research and practice during the Cold War, when the preeminent concern was the prevention of nuclear war. Now global in scope, the focal concerns of peace psychologists are nuanced by geohistorical contexts and the distinction between episodic violence and structural violence, the latter of which also kills people, albeit slowly through the deprivation of basic need satisfaction. Accordingly, the focal concerns of contributors to this issue vary depending on geohistorical context: some being primarily concerned with patterns of behavior and cognition involved in the prevention of violent episodes and others with the amelioration of structural violence. A systems perspective is used as a framework for integrating episodes and structures of violence and peace. Articles emphasizing "systemic violence" demonstrate the interplay between structures and episodes of violence. Articles on "systemic peacebuilding" examine intergroup contact, the nonviolent management of conflict, and movement toward socially just structures, thereby yielding an increase in cooperative and equitable relationships across levels, from interpersonal to intergroup.     

Race,victim precipitated homicide,and the subculture of violence thesis

The subculture of violence thesis suggests that African Americans are disproportionately likely to respond to minor transgressions with lethal force because of a culturally defined need to protect one’s reputation and a normative aversion to legal forms of dispute resolution. Using data on over 950 non-justifiable homicides from police files, the present study tests this hypothesis by examining race-specific patterns of victim precipitation (i.e., the victim’s role in initiating the homicide). If, as the theory suggests, African Americans are more likely to respond to minor affronts with lethal violence than Whites, then African American homicide incidents should have more victim precipitation, particularly in the form of minor acts of provocation. The results of the current analysis do not support this hypothesis and therefore are inconsistent with the notion that a unique subculture of violence among African Americans explains their disproportionately high levels of homicide victimization and offending.     

Locus of control and the direction of lethal violence: Cross national analysis,research note

Previous work has suggested that economic development affects the direction of lethal violence through a civilizing process wherein there is a shift from an internal to an external locus of control. However, data were not available to measure locus of control. The present work assesses the relationship between a measure of control and the direction of lethal violence or SHR (suicide rate/(suicide + homicide rates)). Data representing 53 nations are merged from the world values survey and the world health organization. The results of a multiple regression analysis show that locus of control is unrelated to the direction of violence. While development fosters internal locus of control, the link between development and direction of violence is not explained by locus of control.     

Emotional kinship care and neutral non‐kinship care — the struggle between discourses

In this paper, social workers' ideas of kinship care and non‐kinship care as foster placement alternatives for vulnerable children are analysed and discussed. The study is based on group interviews with Swedish social workers, using a discourse analytic approach. The interviews took two vignettes of children who needed an immediate and long‐term placement because one of the parents had killed the other parent, as their point of departure. Domestic violence is a common social problem across countries, and controversies about placement alternatives become even more apparent when discussing lethal violence. The analysis revealed three main discourses: ‘emotional kinship care’, ‘neutral non‐kinship care’ and ‘a real family’. The emotional kinship care discourse also revealed two competing sub‐discourses: ‘emotions as glue that binds’ and ‘emotions as obscuring a child perspective’, displaying a struggle concerning the advantages and risks that social workers connected to kinship care. In this paper, the results and their implications for vulnerable children are discussed.     

Regional variation in the effect of structural factors on homicide in rural areas

A significant literature has evolved in the last 40 years investigating regional variation in lethal violence, with most studies focusing on Southern homicide rates. One question posed by this research involves the effect of structural conditions on violence in the context of a regional culture of violence. We take a unique approach to this problem by detailing two distinct conceptual processes, amplification and attenuation of structural influences on violence. We then investigate regional variations in the effects of resource deprivation on White homicide in rural areas—a context in which the Southern culture of violence should be most prominent. The results of our county-level analyses of census and homicide data around the year 2000 reveal that White homicide rates are higher in Confederate South states and that resource deprivation has a positive association with White homicide. The effect of resource deprivation also accounts for the Confederate South effect, and an interaction model indicates that the effect of this variable is significantly stronger in the non-South as predicted by the attenuation argument. Overall, these results suggest that both structural and cultural forces contribute to rural White homicide rates.     

Joint Attention and Imitative Learning in Children,Chimpanzees, and Enculturated Chimpanzees*

In this study we compared the nature of the joint attentional interactions that occurred as chimpanzees and human children engaged with a human experimenter (E). Subjects were three chimpanzees raised mostly with conspecifics (mother-reared), three chimpanzees raised in a human-like cultural environment (encultur-ated), and six 18-month-old human children. Of particular interest were possible differences between the two groups of chimpanzees that might have resulted from their different ontogenetic histories. Observations were made as subjects participated in an imitative learning task involving a number of novel objects. Variables coded were such things as subjects' looks to the object, looks to E, the coordination of such looks in periods of joint engagement with E, and gestural attempts to direct E's attention or behavior (declaratives and imperatives). Results showed that encultur-ated chimpanzees were most similar to human children in social interactions involv-ing objects, for example, in their attention to the object in compliance with E's request, their joint attentional interactions during less structured periods, and their use of declarative gestures to direct E's attention to objects. They were not similar to children, but rather resembled their mother-reared conspecifics, in the duration of their looks to E's face. A positive relation between subjects' joint attentional skills and their imitative learning skills was found for both chimpanzee and human sub-jects. It is concluded that a human-like sociocultural environment is an essential component in the development of human-like social-cognitive and joint attentional skills for chimpanzees, and perhaps for human beings as well     

Domestic violence and child abuse: developing social work practice

This paper takes as its starting point the report produced by the Social Services Inspectorate (1995), entitled Domestic Violence and Social Care , which seeks to alert social workers to the links between domestic violence and child abuse and urges the profession to respond more effectively to these two interconnected forms of violence. Having examined the research findings which provide evidence for these links, the theoretical and service delivery contexts in which these two forms of violence have been studied and conceptualized by the social work profession, both in the United Kingdom and in the United States, are identified. Studies of the social work response to domestic violence are discussed and some of the difficulties experienced by social workers in responding effectively to the needs of families where both forms of violence are experienced are considered. In particular, the issues of 'invisible' men and 'trapped' women and children are explored. It is argued that effective social work intervention which challenges these stereotypes will require additional resources and the article concludes with a consideration of whether the Messages from Research report might herald a shift in the approach to child protection that would promote the allocation of resources to this area of work.     

Animal Abuse as a Sentinel for Human Violence: A Critique

It has been suggested that acts of violence against human and nonhuman animals share commonalities, and that animal abuse is a sentinel for current or future violence toward people. The popular and professional acceptance of strong connections between types of violence is beginning to be used to justify social work interventions and to influence legal decision making, and so requires greater scrutiny. Examination of the limited pool of empirical data suggests that animal abuse is relatively common among men, with violent offenders having an increased probability of reporting prior animal abuse—with the majority of violent offenders not reporting any animal abuse. Causal explanations for "the link," such as empathy impairment or conduct disorder, suffer from a lack of validating research and, based on research into interhuman violence, the assumption that violence has a predominant, single underlying cause must be questioned. An (over)emphasis on the danger that animal abusers pose to humans serves to assist in achieving a consensus that animal abuse is a serious issue, but potentially at the cost of failing to focus on the most common types of abuse, and the most effective strategies for reducing its occurrence. Nothing in this review and discussion should be taken as minimizing the importance of animals as frequent victims of violence, or the co-occurrence of abuse types in "at-risk" households. However, given the weakness of the underlying data, emphasizing the indiscriminate dangerousness of all animal abusers may have unforeseen and unwanted consequences.     

Activist Participatory Research Among the Maya of Guatemala: Constructing Meanings from Situated Knowledge

In this article, I analyze two separate experiences with the Maya in rural communities within Guatemala and discuss strengths and limitations of Participatory Action Research (PAR) within this context. These experiences are the context in and from which I explore my "situated otherness" within a praxis of solidarity and question dominant theoretical models for conceptualizing and responding to the effects of war on children. Further, I explore, with my Maya colleagues, alternative methodologies (including PAR) for "standing under" these realities from this position of "other." I conclude the essay with a brief discussion of selected criteria that contribute to evaluating participatory strategies in PAR and a summary of current efforts to extend this praxis from situations of ongoing violence in Guatemala to more local sites, e.g., Boston, Massachusetts.     

Children's experiences and needs in relation to domestic and family violence: Findings from a meta‐synthesis

Domestic and family violence is a significant issue experienced by many children that can have severe detrimental impacts to their health, development, and well‐being. Despite the significance of this issue, it is only recently that children have been included in research that seeks to understand the impacts that domestic and family violence may have on their lives. This paper reports on the findings of a meta‐synthesis, which explored qualitative research about children's experiences of domestic and family violence. Thirty‐two studies, including from the United Kingdom, North America, and Australia were included for review. The meta‐synthesis found that children describe domestic violence as being a complex, isolating, and enduring experience that often results in disruption, losses, and challenges to their significant relationships. Children's common feelings of fear, worry, powerlessness, and sadness were also uncovered, in addition to the strategies they employed to try and facilitate the safety and emotional well‐being of themselves and their family. Children's wants and needs are also highlighted. The findings demonstrate that despite the increasing interest in children's experiences of domestic and family violence, qualitative research remains limited, with many gaps evident. Implications for research, policy, and practice are considered.