Immigration,Gender, and Earnings in Israel

This study describes and accounts for gender differences in earnings among the foreign-born in Israel and how these differences vary by origin countries. It expands on an earlier study that examined the effect of being foreign-born and female on employment status. I address three major questions: Do earnings corroborate the “double disadvantage” of immigrant women relative to both native-born women and native and foreign-born men? How do gender differences in earnings evolve with the prolongation of tenure in the new country? Does the combined effect of nativity status and gender act similarly among all foreign-born groups? Results of OLS regressions from the 1995 population census indicates that, everything else being equal, immigrants, including immigrant women, out-earn native-born men. The effect of tenure, by single year, shows that immigrant men and immigrant women follow very similar trajectories but the latter achieve similarity to native-born men much sooner. A detailed analysis reveals important stratification by country of birth. All the immigrant women who out-earned native men and native women originated in America or Europe. By contrast, all immigrant women who are at a disadvantage relative to native-born men are from Asia or Africa. The most common pattern, in which immigrant women earn as much as native-born men do but out-earn native-born women, characterizes immigrants from both Asia–Africa and Europe–America. The results are discussed in reference to three working hypotheses—“absorption climate,” “immigration motivation,” and “socio-cultural norms”—and in close connection with observations from the investigation on employment status.     

Religion, Religiousness and Fertility in the US and in Europe

This article aims to assess the role of religion and religiousness in engendering higher US fertility compared to Europe. Religion is important in the life of one-half of US women, whereas not even for one of six Europeans. By every available measure, American women are more religious than European women. Catholic and Protestant women have notably higher fertility than those not belonging to any denomination in the US and across Europe. In all European regions and in the United States as well as among all denominations the more devout have more children. However, women in Northern and Western Europe who are the least religious have equivalent or even higher fertility than women in the US, and notably higher fertility than those in Southern Europe. This suggests that forces other than religion and religiousness are also important in their impact on childbearing. A multivariate analysis demonstrates that relatively “traditional” socio-economic covariates (age, marital status, residence, education, and income) do not substantially change the positive association of religiousness and fertility. Finally, if Europeans were as religious as Americans one might theoretically expect a small fertility increase for Europe as a whole, but considerably more for Western Europe.     

基于ICRG的中国海外投资国家风险评价方法

中国企业在“走出去”获取“两种资源、两个市场”的过程中经历了很多国家风险。探索中国海外投资面临的国家风险的评价方法,建立海外投资国家风险评价体系,包括政治风险、经济风险、金融风险3个一级指标和22个二级指标。通过专家打分融入国内专家对时局的判断后,利用层次分析思想确定一、二级指标权重。利用ICRG 2014年1月的原始数据计算出140个国家和地区的风险得分,由此得出对于中国企业具有现实意义的结论:亚洲国家和地区风险水平参差不齐,欧洲国家和地区风险整体水平最低,非洲国家和地区风险整体水平最高,美洲国家和地区风险整体水平较稳定; 风险最低的国家和地区主要集中在亚洲和欧洲,其中发达国家和地区占67;,发展中国家和地区占33;。最后,对中国企业海外投资给出了建议。     

两种理论视野下的西欧穆斯林政治参与问题探析

20世纪60年代以来,穆斯林已经成为西欧社会不容忽视的现实存在,但是在政治参与方面,穆斯林远未能有效参与西欧各国的政治进程。穆斯林人口在种族、经济地位等方面的多样性是其有效参与政治的内在障碍。从资源动员理论和政治机会结构理论的分析可以发现,穆斯林对公民权、政治精英、参政渠道等政治资源的占有不足,加之欧洲殖民心理遗产的影响、欧洲的世俗化政策、伊斯兰恐惧症、外部穆斯林世界的影响等多种因素,共同构成了影响穆斯林广泛参与西欧政治生活的重要原因。     

Ready,Willing, and Able: Contraceptive Use Patterns Across Europe

An “East–West” divide in contraceptive use patterns has been identified across Europe, with Western European countries characterized by the widespread use of modern contraception, and Central and Eastern European countries characterized by a high prevalence of withdrawal, the rhythm method, or abortion. Building on the Ready–Willing–Able framework, this study aims to gain more insight into the micro- and macro-level socioeconomic, cultural, and technological determinants underlying contraceptive use. Data from the Generations and Gender Survey (2004–2011) covering four Western and seven Central and Eastern European countries are used, and multinomial multilevel analyses are performed. Results reveal that individuals who intend to delay parenthood are more likely to use any contraceptive method, whereas holding more traditional values and having a lower socioeconomic status are associated with a higher likelihood of using no or only traditional methods. Regional reproductive rights and gender equality interact in complex ways with these associations. At minimum, our results underline the complexity of the processes underlying the persistent difference in contraceptive use across Europe.     

Why should you write about Eastern Europe,or: Why should you write about “the Other”?

Much recent cultural criticism points out the ways in which “writing about ‘the Other’” perpetuates, justifies and participates in the creation of “real-life” relations of domination and oppression between the “authors” (located in the center(s) of power and knowledge) and their “subject matters.” This paper takes a different approach and explores theliberating potentials of “writing about ‘the Other.’” Completed in the spring of 1991, in the wake of changes in Eastern Europe from the fall of 1989, this paper gives a loose mapping of the nascent Eastern European cultural constellations, as well as an elaboration of the position of a “native” intellectual, in order to circuitously come to the point from which it can articulate the ways in which “Western” writing about “Eastern Europe” can create liberating interventions in the struggles going on in Eastern Europe.     

Fertility Patterns Among Turkish Women in Turkey and Abroad: The Effects of International Mobility,Migrant Generation,and Family Background

In this paper, we examine the fertility behavior of Turkish women in Europe from a context-of-origin perspective. Women with different migration biographies (first-generation, 1.5-generation, second-generation migrants, and return migrants) are compared with “stayer” women from the same regions of origin in Turkey. This approach provides us with new insights into the study of the effects of international migrations. First-, second-, and third-birth transitions are analyzed using data from the 2000 Families Study, which was conducted in 2010 and 2011 in Turkey and in western Europe. The classical hypotheses of disruption, interrelated events, adaptation, socialization, and selectivity/composition are developed with reference to the context-of-origin perspective. To account for socialization and family-related composition effects, we also look at family characteristics. Our findings provide no support for the disruption hypothesis, but suggest that the first-generation migrant women have higher first-birth risks than the stayers. However, this gap can be fully explained by differences in marriage duration. Differences in composition—namely in educational attainment—account for our finding that the second migrant generation has lower first-birth transition rates than the women in Turkey. Except for the number of siblings, the family influence, including the processes of intergenerational transmission, is minor and hardly accounts for the migrant–stayer differences in birth transitions. Most remarkably, the analyses show that the second- and third-birth risks of almost all of the migrant groups are higher than those of the women in Turkey, when individual and family factors are held constant; which suggests that there is a fertility crossover between the origin and the destination contexts.     

北欧妇女参政:一个政治学维度的分析

19世纪末20世纪初,西方女权运动出现以争取妇女选举权为主题的第一次高潮,此后,北欧五国的妇女一直以高涨的参政热情和斐然的政治地位为世人瞩目。本文试图从参政主体素质及参政途径、参政客体中妇女的地位及作用等方面对北欧妇女参政进行政治学维度的考察,分析北欧妇女参政中蕴涵的政治学涵义,以期对我国的妇女参政有所启迪。     

欧美反智主义的兴起：一个社会阶层结构嬗变的视角

近期欧美国家反智主义的兴起作为一种突出的社会意识形态现象，与西方社会阶层结构嬗变高度相关。2008年金融危机以来社会政策失衡所引发的社会阶层分化、固化和极化，导致一些国家从较为稳定的“橄榄型”阶层结构蜕化为分裂的“双钻石型”阶层结构。社会阶层结构嬗变和社会关系紧张引发的排外、仇怨等社会心理影响了人们的理性思维，中下阶层获得的教育资源和教育质量不足在一定程度上固化了阶层分化的格局，同时造成了智识水平下降的趋势，使民众更易于被精英和政客煽动与误导。反智主义是西方治理危机和制度危机的精神伴生物，在目前欧美国家资产阶级制度体系和统治方式之下，将始终存在蔓延和膨胀的空间，随着西方社会阶层分化加剧和社会矛盾的演化激化，这种精神异化可能会以更加剧烈的社会运动形态表现出来。     

Partner Choice Patterns Among the Descendants of Turkish Immigrants in Europe

We examine the partner choice patterns of second-generation Turks in 13 European cities in seven countries. We not only compare intermarriage versus endogamous marriage, but also explicitly include the choice of a second-generation partner of the same origin and of a partner of other migrant origin as important alternatives. In Europe, populations are made up increasingly of migrants and their descendants resulting in new alternative partner options not open before. Findings suggest that second-generation Turks who choose a second-generation partner seem to be located between the partner choice of a first-generation and native partner in terms of family values and contact to non-coethnic peers. The choice of a partner of other migrant origin hardly differs in these characteristics from the choice of a native partner. Context variables such as group size and type of integration policies seem to play a role for the likelihood of having a first-generation versus a second-generation partner of Turkish origin but not for the likelihood of exogamous partner choice. A second-generation partner is the most popular choice in Germany but represents a minor option in the other countries. Furthermore, a partner of other migrant origin is more common among men but is in some countries more popular than a native partner among Turkish second-generation men and women.     

Differences in Delaying Motherhood Across European Countries: Empirical Evidence from the ECHP

Motherhood postponement and fertility decline have been observed in almost all developed countries. In this article, we aim to assess some of the potential determinants of first childbirth timing in Europe, in a comparative perspective, using data from the European Community Household Panel Survey (ECHP). We estimate, separately by country, hazard rates for the timing at first childbirth conditioning to education and work characteristics. Moreover, in order to explain differences between European countries, we decompose the differences between rates in the part due to the national population composition by specific characteristics and the part due to different propensities for women with given characteristics.     

Where Are the Babies? Labor Market Conditions and Fertility in Europe

Cross-country differences in both the age at first birth and fertility are substantial in Europe. This paper uses distinct fluctuations in unemployment rates across European countries during the 1980s and the 1990s combined with broad differences in their labor market arrangements to analyze the associations between fertility timing and the changing economic environment with close to 50,000 women from 13 European countries. First, it employs time-varying measures of aggregate market conditions in each woman??s country as covariates and second, it adds micro-measures of each woman??s labor market history to the models. High and persistent unemployment in a country is associated with delays in childbearing (and second births). The association is robust to diverse measures of unemployment and to controls for family-friendly policies. Besides moderate unemployment, a large public employment sector (which provides security and benefits) is coupled with faster transitions to all births. Women with temporary contracts, mostly in Southern Europe, are the least likely to give birth to a second child.     

Mortality trends and causes of death: A comparison between Eastern and Western Europe, 1960s–1980s

Two distinctive mortality trends emerged in Europe between the mid-1960s and mid-1980s. Eastern European mortality rates remained constant for women over 40 and increased substantially for men over 35, while mortality in Western Europe decreased considerably above age 35 for women and men. I examine causes of deaths, using Pollard's method of decomposing changes in life expectancy into components specific to each age group and cause of death. Western European success in coping with circulatory system diseases at middle-to-old ages are by far the most important cause for the differing trends. Western Europe was also more successful in lowering mortality from malignant neoplasms and digestive and respiratory system diseases primarily at middle-to-old ages.     

Employment After Parenthood: Women of Migrant Origin and Natives Compared

Motherhood negatively affects female employment in majority populations across Europe. Although employment levels are particularly low among women of migrant origin, little is known about the motherhood–employment link in migrant populations. This paper investigates whether family formation differentially affects the labour market position of migrant women and their descendants compared to natives. Using longitudinal microdata from the Belgian social security registers, 12,167 women are followed from 12 months before until 48 months after the birth of their first child for the period 1999–2010. Levels of activity (versus inactivity), employment (versus unemployment) and full-time employment (versus part-time employment) are compared between natives and first- and second-generation women of Southern European, Eastern European, Turkish and Moroccan origin. We find that activity and employment levels decrease to a larger extent following the transition to parenthood among women of migrant origin than among natives. With respect to activity levels, differences between second-generation women and natives are largely explained by socio-demographic and pre-birth job characteristics, while differences between first-generation women and natives are not, suggesting that other factors such as tied migration patterns determine labour market attachment among first-generation mothers. With respect to employment levels, unemployment is increasing more among women of migrant origin of both generations than among natives, also when controlling for background characteristics, which signals differential access to stable job positions as well as to family policies. In sum, the results draw attention to the challenge that parenthood creates for mothers of migrant origin in terms of retaining and gaining employment, but also to the role of labour market entry and early career positions.     

从“特殊关系”走向“正常关系”——战后美欧关系纵论

第二次世界大战后美欧关系的发展演变,主要受国际形势和美欧双方的实力两大因素制约。冷战期间,美国和西欧国家建立并保持了大西洋联盟式的“特殊关系”。冷战结束后,由于国际形势的变化和欧盟的崛起,美欧关系出现历史性调整,即从冷战时期依附性质的“特殊关系”向后冷战时代趋向平等的“正常关系”转变。伊拉克战争加速了美欧关系历史性调整的进程。     

西欧联合运动中的美英关系

战后美国的全球扩张战略,英国在其中的重要地位,它对美国的全面依赖及本身的优势条件,构成美国与英国结盟政策的动力和基础。美国对英国结盟政策追求一系列目标,特别是期望它在西欧联合运动中扮演领导角色。英国拒绝参加西欧经济一体化的表现与美国推动西欧联合的方针相去甚远,其后在美推动下,终于转向欧共体。英国迫于安全需要,积极配合和支持了美国促进西欧军事联合的方针。美英“特殊关系”实质上是一种以美国为主导的互相利用的联盟关系。     

冲突法中实质正义的实现方式

考察晚近国际私法的发展可以发现,打破冲突规范只追求冲突正义的单一价值取向,倡导法律适用体现实质正义已经成为国际私法的一大趋势。但对于实质正义的实现方式,美国采取了与多数国家不同的方式。总的来说,美国采取的“革命”方式较为激进,而以欧洲国家为代表的多数国家采取的“改良”方式较为稳健。从实践中的运用来看,欧洲国家的法律选择规则改良方式更有利于实质正义的实现。     

17世纪西欧气候变迁与粮食供应危机

17世纪由于西欧气候变化导致食物供应出现困难,也使西欧面临着巨大危机.面对危机,西欧各国采取多种措施,如通过实行新耕作制度、种植新农作物、变革作物种类、围湖造田等方式扩展耕地、运用新方法以改善农业;改变饮食习惯和结构;国家、地方和个人的临时性救济以及进口和限制粮食出口等,保证了食物供应和社会稳定与发展.     

中外妇女参政的差异比较

中国妇女的参政水平在新中国成立后实现了跨越式的进步,拥有了欧美国家妇女争取了上百年时间才获得的政治权利。近一、二十年来全球一个令人瞩目的现象,就是女性参政群体的崛起,但是中国妇女参政发展却显得相对缓慢,中国妇女参政中出现“职务性别化”、“权力边缘化”倾向。究其根源,我们发现西方女性参政权的获得主要是通过妇女自下而上的漫长的女权运动,而在中国,妇女参政权的获得更多是源于政府鼓励和制度支持,通过政府自上而下的政治动员而实现。     

“除末”以“上农”:从猎人到农夫的农政学

中西方经验中的"反本"与"反谷"的史实及考古报告显示,人们并非自愿为农。因此,文章重构了农业起源的问题,将农业与采集渔猎作为两种竞争性生产模式。问题的核心在于农业是在什么条件下形成的,而这些条件是谁推动创建的,它产生了什么样的后果。循此,文章提出要把国家带回农业变迁过程之中,而不是在进化论框限下考察技术性农业发明的线性累计过程。资源汲取效率与治理术效应,构成了国家介入农业变迁的双重必要性。中国经验为理解国家干预农业变迁的方式,提供了一种制度性机制,即所谓"除末"以"上农"的农政学假设。它运作机理是"排除性纳入"的事本逻辑,"山川林泽之禁"是它的制度装置。