Locus of Control, Coping and Proto Prevention in Child and Family Care

Despite a sustained emphasis that appropriate responses aremade to children and families in need, recent policy documentsexpress a concern about the high thresholds for receipt of children’sservices preventing many high-need families from accessing help.Where this is the case, families are liable to have to fallback on their own resources. This raises the question: how dothese families, particularly mothers (frequently the primarycare-givers), cope? Locus of Control (LoC) has been shown tobe a significant factor in the confidence, and capacity, ofindividuals to respond to their external environment. This articlefocuses on applicants for children’s services who didnot meet the thresholds for service receipt, focusing on theircoping strategies in the light of the LoC of the women. Thefindings show that LoC did have an impact on coping strategies,and, in particular, points to the greater likelihood of avoidancestrategies in those with an external LoC and of stress underminingActive Coping by those with internal LoC, in the absence ofservices. These are discussed in the light of prevention, recentlyconceptually extended to include activities by the families,as well as the provision of services.     

Mothers' Coping Strategies as Child and Family Care Service Applicants

The central position of parents, in particular, mothers, inchildcare has been the focus of much recent legislation andresearch in social work. This is evident in notions such asparental responsibility, family support and prevention. However,while family support and prevention have invited considerationof what formal and informal services can do to help familieswith difficulties, there has been less focus on what these families,particularly parents, do for themselves. This is particularlyimportant where thresholds for receipt of sustained social servicesintervention are so high, leaving families with considerableproblems and needs without access to sustained intervention.Drawing upon Coping Theory, this paper seeks to begin to answerthe question: how do these families (specifically the mother,who is generally the primary caregiver) cope? Focusing on familieswho have been service applicants, but not taken on to caseload,this paper focuses on the coping strategies employed by mothersin adversity, how these strategies vary, and how well the womenthemselves feel they have coped. Amongst the findings, therewas evidence of significant differences in problem severityand profile, as well as coping strategy, according to age ofchild; of a relationship between problem severity and ‘effortfor coping’; and that there was a strong relationshipbetween problem severity and women’s rating of their coping,although only in relation to parenting. The paper emphasizeswomen as active problem solvers in their own right, and thetheoretical importance of integrating coping with the notionof prevention.     

A Child's Eye View: Dementia in Children's Literature

This paper explores accounts and understandings of dementiathat are encountered infrequently. Children’s views ofdementia are under-explored and yet children, too, must be beinginfluenced by the growing public knowledge of dementia as anamed disease, particularly of old age. The first section notesthat many children will encounter dementia among family members,their grandparents and great-grandparents in particular. Thesecond section considers fictionalized accounts of dementia.These are assuming greater exposure, not so much in the professionalwelfare domain, but as a plot or character device in contemporaryfiction. This paper combines these two areas by discussing anumber of publications written for young people where dementiais a central issue, motif or characteristic. These include dementia-relatedmaterial targeted at a children’s readership. This isfollowed by development of themes arising from analysis of threenovels written for young people, emanating from Canada, Australiaand the UK. The paper ends with a series of discussion pointsfor social-work practitioners, educationalists and voluntary-sectorsupport or self-help groups working in dementia care and inolder people’s services.     

How to be Modern: New Labour's Neoliberal Modernity and the Change for Children programme

In England the New Labour administration is seeking to embeda ‘transformational reform agenda’ within children’sservice. Social workers, among others appear, however, to bewary of the agenda which is now rhetorically rooted in the EveryChild Matters: Change for Children programme (CfC). The mainsocial work practice elements of this programme are associatedwith the introduction of a Children’s Index, a multidisciplinaryCommon Assessment Framework and the role of Lead Professional.In terms of the promotion of this programme, the governmenthas maintained that the focal aim is to create a ‘modern’children’s workforce. However, the entire ‘transformationalagenda’ can be interpreted as reflecting New Labour’sneoliberal modernity. This is particularly apparent in the termsof the ideas associated with ‘flexibility’ whichare so central to the CfC programme.     

Attachment and Coping Strategies in Middle Childhood Children whose Mothers Have a Mental Health Problem: Implications for Social Work Practice

Mental health has implications for the quality of relationshipswithin a family, particularly between parents and children,but also between other family and non-family members. Previousresearch has investigated parental reports of attachment infamilies with mental health problems, but relationship representationsas experienced by these children, especially in middle childhood,have not been so frequently investigated. An understanding ofchildren’s representations of attachment relationshipsand the different coping strategies that may result is importantfor social work practice when offering support, not only tothe children, but also other family members. Methods of investigatingattachment, such as the Separation Anxiety Test, have been usedto understand the relationship issues, fears and coping strategiesof other vulnerable children, and this study was designed specificallyto investigate relationship issues in middle childhood childrenwhose mothers had previously been hospitalized with mental healthproblems. We found that these children tended to be less emotionallyopen and secure, and generated fewer adaptive coping strategiesthan children whose mothers had never had mental health problems.Other themes also emerged from the interviews, such as a senseof trust in the parent–child relationship and the ‘containment’of fears. Implications for social work practice are discussed.     

Keyworkers Re-examined: Good practice, quality of care and empowerment in residential care of older people

Correspondence to Rosemary Bland, Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland Summary Social work definitions of ‘good practice’ in residentialcare which were originally developed in work with children andyoung people have also been applied to residential settingsfor other user groups, including older people. However, anylink between such elements of practice and positive outcomesfor users has not always been demonstrated. The introductionof market principles and orientations into social welfare inthe 1980s re-defined the social work ‘client’ asa ‘consumer’ with the associated power to make choicesin the area of social care. The success with which such an approachcan be applied to services for people who are very often, notin a position to exercise much choice, is debatable. Alongsidethe notion of the ‘consumer’ or ‘user’of services has grown the ideology of ‘empowerment’of people who use social work services. Drawing on findingsfrom a recent study, this article explores the contributionof the keyworker role to good practice and the empowerment ofolder people living in residential homes. It concludes that,because their understanding of the concept and practice is largelyundeveloped, the role as currently interpreted is not consonantwith good practice and tends rather to reinforce the power ofstaff.     

Evaluating Children's Services: Recent Conceptual and Methodological Developments

This article considers recent innovations and challenges withrespect to the evaluation of children’s services interventions.It sets out a method for designing and evaluating services thatis based on research evidence gathered on individual cases andthat permits revision of those services in the light of emergingresults. It starts by describing briefly different ways of identifyinga discrete group of children with similar needs. It then outlinesapproaches to ensuring that an intervention for those childrenis underpinned by theory and research evidence–includingthe idea of ‘logic modelling’–before discussingthe importance of capturing accurately how well the interventionis implemented. Experimental and non-experimental methods ofassessing an intervention’s effectiveness are considered,with particular emphasis on techniques for enhancing the causalinference that can be drawn from studies and the importanceof matching method and purpose. The article also demonstrateshow the principles and methods used in relation to evaluatingservices for groups can be applied in clinical work with individualcases, and identifies the benefits of this general approachto evaluation over and above the information that it provideson what works.     

Depressed Mothers' Experience of Partnership in Child and Family Care

Summary Partnership is a key dimension of social work practice in childand family care, reflecting the significance attached to workingwith parents. While, however, considerable attention has beenfocused on the role of the social worker in encouraging partnership,rather less attention has been focused on the capacity of themothers to engage in partnership. Depression, known to affecta considerable proportion of mothers in this client group, is,because of its debilitating psychological effects, of considerablepotential significance, yet its effect on partnership has notbeen examined. This article focuses on exactly this issue. Findingsshow that depression has highly significant relationships witha number of facets of partnership. It shows also that partnershipmorale and quality of consultation mediate between depressionand, respectively, participation in decision making and involvementin decision implementation—action by the mother to helpresolve the situation. Depression and partnership are, furthermore,related in a complex way to the authority role invoked in casesof children ‘at risk’. The data indicate that theelements of low self-esteem, vulnerability to criticism, andself-blame are key factors in the mother's capacity to workin partnership. Social work practice must take these into account,requiring very high degrees of sensitivity and skill in workingwith mothers. Indeed, unlocking these pernicious cognitionsmay frequently require specialist techniques, such as the useof cognitive behaviour therapy. Overall, being ‘socialworker for the child’ means also being ‘social workerfor the parents (in particular the mother)’, who may wellrequire high levels of encouragement.     

Giving a Voice to Women Survivors of Domestic Violence through Recognition as a Service User Group

Perhaps surprisingly, given the germinal role played by thewomen’s movement, women survivors of domestic violenceare not amongst those commonly conceptualized as service usergroups. This paper explores why this may be the case and whyit matters. It draws upon the findings of a multi-methodologicalstudy of specialist domestic violence services and of relateduser and professional views. It demonstrates the limitationsto survivors’ influence within these services, some ofthe key obstacles women experience, and the commonalities anddifferences between these and the experiences of other usergroups. In particular, the specific issues of women still ‘beingin the experience’ and of professionals who are also survivorsbut who feel unable to disclose this are discussed as usefulcontributions to the theory of service user involvement.     

Participation of Disabled Children and Young People in Decision Making Within Social Services Departments: A Survey of Current and Recent Activities in England

A survey of all social services departments in England was undertakenin order to identify and investigate current work concerningthe participation of disabled children within decision makingregarding their own care and in service development. Developinga culture of, and good practice in, children’s participationis integral to government policy. Results demonstrate that disabledchildren are being involved in a range of decision-making areas;however, participation is not yet embedded or sustained acrossall social services departments, and the involvement of disabledchildren at a higher strategic level is still rare. The participationof disabled children needs further development including moreevidence on which factors can support and promote disabled children’seffective participation.     

'The Tip of the Ice Berg': Children's Complaints and Advocacy in Wales--An Insider View from Complaints Officers

This paper is based on findings of a Welsh Assembly Governmentfunded review of children’s independent advocacy servicesin Wales with reference to their involvement in complaints madeby children, or by their parents or carers on their behalf,about local authority social services. It draws, primarily,upon qualitative interviews with local authority children’scomplaints officers, whose task is to receive complaints orconcerns, field these to appropriate social services staff,maintain oversight of their progression and keep complainantsinformed of developments. The paper describes the challengesthat complaints officers perceive children encounter in movingcomplaints forward, especially in a context where independentadvocacy services are involved and where these services areviewed with some suspicion by social services staff. It suggeststhat complaints officers play a pivotal part in managing thesometimes contested and complex interface between service providerand child and may do so from a position of limited authorityand influence. The role of complaints officers in engaging withcomplainants and their advocates, and with those colleaguesimplicated in complaints, has rarely been the topic of research.This paper provides accounts from these key staff that helpilluminate the tensions and difficulties that can enter thechildren’s complaints process.     

The Impact of the First Term of the New Labour Government on Social Work in Britain: The Interface between Education Policy and Social Work

Summary This paper considers how far the New Labour educational policyrepresents a clear shift in focus from the policies of the Conservativeadministrations of the 1980s and 1990s. As in other areas ofsocial policy, the paper concludes that current government policyowes as much—if not more—to ‘New Right’ideology than to that of the ‘Old Left’. With anew emphasis on social inclusion, the paper considers the contributionof, and implications for, contemporary developments in educationpolicy and practice for child and family social work in general,and education social work in particular.     

The Social Worker as 'Bad Object'

Correspondence to Dr Marguerite Valentine, 56 Osbaldeston Road, London N16 7DR Summary A ‘bad object’ has been defined as an ‘objectwhom the subject hates or fears, who is experienced as malevolent.A bad object may be either an internal or an external object’(Rycroft, 1988, p. 100). This paper explores the circumstancesin which public fears and anxieties over child abuse becomeprojected into the social worker. It discusses how social workersintroject these feelings, become a ‘bad object’,and how social services departments have developed a numberof strategies which defend against feelings of blame and responsibility.The exploration is derived from my own experiences and observations,and applies Kleinian psychoanalytic theory to studies of institutionaldefences.     

Young People, Risk Taking and Risk Making: Some Thoughts for Social Work

Policy makers, professionals and the public have become increasinglyconcerned with identifying and managing young people who arenot only troubled or at risk, but troubling or risky. Socialwork, however, has been relatively silent on the subject. Insocial work practice, young people have become largely ‘someoneelse’s problem’; in the academy, relatively littlecritical attention has been given to their risk taking, or tothe way we ‘make’ or construct it. This paper takesan exploratory rather than systematically comprehensive journey,across a range of discursive terrains, to open up the debate.Examining current concerns with youth and risk, it exploressome of the social and psychological theory bases whereby youthis constructed as a risky business. Drawing on empirical researchfrom several disciplines, it examines patterns and dynamicsof young people’s risk taking, and explores concepts ofrisk culture and cultural learning, identity capital and Bourdieu’snotion of ‘habitus’, to frame these. The discussionhighlights the need for critically reflective social work tounderstand the complex interplay of identity and agency, structure,culture and context that underpins young people’s risktaking. It encourages us to scrutinize our judgements of whatis acceptable or unacceptable riskiness, what within and whatbeyond the pale.     

Research Review: Risk and protection in the context of services for children in need

The paper summarizes the evidence and provides definitions of risk, protective factors, resilience, coping strategies and need in the context of children in need. Definitions are offered for children in need and children's services. The way in which individual interpretation can alter objective assessment of risk is explored. A method for recording evidence relevant to clinical practice on behalf of children in need is offered. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.     

The Missing Assessment Domain: Personal, Professional and Organizational Factors Influencing Professional Judgements when Identifying and Referring Child Neglect

Professionals encountering possible cases of child neglect facea complex task when judging whether a particular concern warrantsa referral to social work services. A study of referral practicein cases of child neglect, completed in the Republic of Ireland,highlighted that it is not just the nature of the concern thatinfluences referral practice but a range of other factors thatare not related to the needs of the specific child. Assessmentframeworks and tools, designed to assist practitioners makedecisions about potential cases of neglect, usually focus ontechnical–rational activity associated with assessingchildren’s needs, parenting capacity and family and environmentalfactors. The findings from the study described in this paperindicate that assessment practice is as much a practice–moralactivity as a technical–rational one. In other words,it is both a head and a heart activity. In this article, thefactors influencing practitioners’ approaches to the identificationand referral of cases of child neglect are explored. A rangeof factors appear to influence practice. These include the practitioner’sown perception of what comprises neglect and the extent to whichthey use ‘gut reaction’ or an evidence base to reachthis conclusion. Their interpretation of role and the viewsof their colleagues and team manager also influence practice.In addition, their perception of social work services and thebenefits of referral affect decisions to refer. Finally, theirown personal feelings such as fear, guilt, over-empathy andanxiety about the response of the community have an effect onpractice. The paper concludes by drawing together the findingsof the study to produce a ‘practitioner domain’alerting practitioners and managers to the head and heart activitieswhich influence referral practice.     

Reflexivity, its Meanings and Relevance for Social Work: A Critical Review of the Literature

The concept of ‘reflexivity’ has become increasinglysignificant in social work literature in relation to socialwork education, theory and practice. However, our reading ofthe literature indicates that there is a lack of clarity aboutthe concept in terms of who is being exhorted to be ‘reflexive’,when and how. This article addresses these questions througha critical review of social work literature since the 1990sthat discusses the concept of ‘reflexivity’. Giventhat many authors seem to use the concepts of ‘reflexivity’and ‘(critical) reflection’ interchangeably, wealso apply this analysis to ‘reflection’ and ‘criticalreflection’. This article raises important questions abouthow the concepts of ‘reflexivity’, ‘criticalreflection’ and ‘reflectivity’ are definedand the different consequences such definitions might have forsocial work education, theory and practice.     

Professionals Assessing Clients' Needs and Eligibility for Electric Scooters in the Netherlands: Both Gatekeepers and Clients' Advocates

Independence and maintaining social contact are important factorsof elderly persons’ quality of life. An electric scootermay support people with mobility problems to achieve these goals.In the Netherlands, needs assessors have been appointed to evaluateclients’ eligibility for electric scooters. They haveto cope with a twofold job assignment: allocating services toonly those clients who are eligible according to predeterminedcriteria, but also acting in their client’s best interest,for the system of needs assessment should be client oriented.This paper examines how needs assessors apply eligibility criteriaand act in the client’s interest at the same time. A qualitativestudy was performed, observing twelve house calls of clientsrequesting an electric scooter. Interviews were held with needsassessors and a document analysis was made. We found that needsassessors used their discretionary room to create their ownpolicy regarding who deserves an electric scooter and who doesnot. They did this by concealing or emphasizing certain information.Especially when needs assessors sympathized with their clients,they did their best to sustain the case. The paper concludeswith the suggestion that needs assessors would benefit fromdiscussing their personal values, not only to agree on theirnorms as a professional group but also to avoid illegitimatearguments influence the decision. Furthermore, needs assessorshould try to influence local social policy, gearing it towardsthe needs of the local community.     

Towards a Model for Co-working in Family Conciliation

Correspondence to Thelma Fisher, Tutor in Social Work, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, Avon BA2 7AY. Summary This article surveys the present state of co-working in thepractice of those independent family conciliation services affiliatedto the National Family Conciliation Council. It proposes thata model of co-working is needed that is specifically tailoredto conciliation practice. It sets out progress towards such a model in a particular agency—theSwindon Family Conciliation Service. It develops a theoreticalbase for this model from the concepts of ‘content’and ‘process’ which it links with the ‘underlying’and ‘substantive’ issues brought up by separatingand divorcing couples for resolution. It draws these ideas fromwritings about divorce experience and negotiation procedures. It then presents a particular case, with an extract from anactual interview in which the model is used, and introducesa diagrammatic format for analysing conciliation processes interms of the model proposed.     

Emotional Intelligence, Emotion and Social Work: Context, Characteristics, Complications and Contribution

Emotional intelligence (EI) has become one of the new management‘buzz’ terms. It is suggested that this is the missingingredient that separates average from top management or performance.However, despite its potential relevance for social work practice,there has been little investigation and few reports about itsapplication in social work settings. This paper seeks to stimulatedebate about the role of EI in social work practice by consideringits development, definitions and problematics. Whilst the empiricalevidence supporting the existence of a separate and measurableEI is ambiguous and emergent, the role of emotion in the organizationof human behaviour is more firmly established. The paper examinesthe role of EI and emotion in relation to five core social worktasks: engagement of users; assessment and observation; decisionmaking; collaboration and co-operation; dealing with stress.The paper situates itself in the rapidly changing context ofsocial work: the merger of social services departments withlarger more powerful bureaucracies; the movement towards integratedservice delivery; and the new social work degree. It is arguedthat social work needs to identify its claims to professionalcompetence at a time of such change, one of which is the abilityto use relationships to address users’ needs. This requiresthe capacity to handle both one’s own and others’emotions effectively.