Ageism: Prejudice Against Our Feared Future Self

For decades, researchers have discovered much about how humans automatically categorize others in social perception. Some categorizations—race, gender, and age—are so automatic that they are termed "primitive categories." As we categorize, we often develop stereotypes about the categories. Researchers know much about racism and sexism, but comparatively little about prejudicing and stereotyping based on age. The articles in this issue highlight the current empirical and theoretical work by researchers in gerontology, psychology, communication, and related fields on understanding the origins and consequences of stereotyping and prejudicing against older adults. With the aging baby boomer demographic, it is especially timely for researchers to work to understand how society can shed its institutionalized ageism and promote respect for elders.     

Ageism Across the Lifespan: Towards a Self-Categorization Model of Ageing

This article uses this collection of articles on ageism as a springboard to discuss empirical lacunae in the literature as well as propose a self-categorization model of ageing phenomena. In particular, we argue that research would benefit from a more lifespan communication perspective. This includes the social origins of ageism that can be laid down early in development and perpetuated through collusive processes as individuals themselves age. Further, problems of interactively managing ageism, its intragenerational parameters, and the variable consequences of making death salient, are identified. Finally, we elaborate and illustrate a self-categorization model of ageing processes before critically examining panaceas proposed by others to ameliorate ageism.     

Prejudicial Attitudes Toward Older Adults May Be Exaggerated When People Feel Vulnerable to Infectious Disease: Evidence and Implications

Prejudice against elderly people ("ageism") is an issue of increasing social concern, but the psychological roots of ageism are only partially understood. Recent theorizing suggests that ageism may result, in part, from fallible cue-based disease-avoidance mechanisms. The perception of subjectively atypical physical features (including features associated with aging) may implicitly activate aversive semantic concepts (implicit ageism), and this implicit ageism is likely to emerge among perceivers who are especially worried about the transmission of infectious diseases. We report an experiment (N = 88) that provides the first empirical test of this hypothesis. Results revealed that implicit ageism is predicted by the interactive effects of chronic perceptions of vulnerability to infectious disease and by the temporary salience of disease-causing pathogens. Moreover, these effects are moderated by perceivers' cultural background. Implications for public policy are discussed .     

Ageism and Abuse in the Workplace: A New Frontier

The economic crisis in the United States has led to increased media coverage of older workers being laid off, forced to retire, or working longer than planned. Embedded in these reports are the intimations of workplace abuse. Social workers need to start taking into account ageism and abuse in the workplace as possible cooccurring issues to effectively implement policy, and organizational change that will address both issues. This brief article discusses ageism and abuse in the workplace using a human rights framework, the current state of the literature, and directions for future research.     

Volunteering and its impact on self-identity: results from Chaoyang District in Beijing

Ageism has a negative influence on older peoples’ self-identity and behaviour, forming stereotyped attitudes toward the older population that further aggravate ageism. Volunteerism may reduce ageism by improving older adults’ self-identification. This study examined the association between community volunteering and self-identity, and further explored the relationship between participation level and self-identity among Chinese older adults in Beijing. Logistic regression modelling was applied. After controlling for demographic characteristics, financial security and self-rated health, volunteerism was significantly associated with youthful self-identity. Older people who volunteer at least once a week for no more than two hours at a time are the least likely to identify themselves as being of old age.     

Ageism and Ageist Language Across the Life Span: Intimate Relationships and Non-intimate Interactions

The possible effects of ageist language and ageism on the structure and function of intimate and non-intimate relationships have received significant attention from social scientists. Recent research grounded in communication accommodation theory ( Giles, Mulac, Bradac, & Johnson, 1987 ), the communication predicament model of ageing ( Ryan, Giles, Bartolucci, & Henwood, 1986 ), the communication enhancement model of ageing ( Ryan, Meredith, MacLean, & Orange, 1995 ), and ageing and stereotype research by Hummert (1994) and colleagues ( Hummert & Mazloff, 2001 ; Hummert, Shaner, & Garstka, 1995 ) point toward the numerous consequences of both negative and positive attitudes toward ageing. Focusing specifically on health care settings, this article reviews recent theoretical positions and empirical findings that link ageist language and ageism to these positive and negative social consequences, and offers pragmatic suggestions and directions for future research .     

A Terror Management Perspective on Ageism

In the present article, we present a theoretical perspective on ageism that is derived from terror management theory. According to the theory, human beings manage deeply-rooted fears about their vulnerability to death through symbolic constructions of meaning and corresponding standards of value. We extend this perspective to suggest that elderly individuals present an existential threat for the non-elderly because they remind us all that: (a) death is inescapable, (b) the body is fallible, and (c) the bases by which we may secure self-esteem (and manage death anxiety) are transitory. We review some recent empirical evidence in support of these ideas and then discuss possible avenues for combating ageism.     

中国老年歧视的制度性根源与老年人公共政策的重构

老年歧视的产生原因包括个体、社会、制度、文化、历史传承等不同层面。本研究在分析老年歧视制度性根源和制度性老年歧视结构特征的基础上,运用内容分析方法对我国老年人公共政策体系进行系统评价。研究认为,老年歧视的制度性根源将社会对老年人群体的偏见和歧视以制度的形式固化和合理化,直接制约了老年人平等获得资源和机会的途径。因此,应以公平、平等的价值理念重建老年人公共政策,为积极老龄化提供制度保障。     

Ageism: A Review of Research and Policy Implications

The current literature on aging and ageism is summarized in support of a theoretical perspective that includes both the biological and the psychosocial components of these processes. Conceptual and methodological problems are identified in models that rely on a deficit approach to aging. We suggest that the biased responses of others foster older adults' stress-related emotional and hormonal responses—responses that may effectively reduce their social and cognitive competence. This negative feedback process ultimately acts in a stereotype-maintaining fashion. Implications are drawn for possible changes in social policy and institutional practices that may reduce or prevent the harmful effects of ageism. Examples are given of existing policies and practices that limit the lives of older adults (in the guise of protection), along with newly instituted policies and practices (including those at an international level) that place the welfare of older adults in the context of life course issues shared by all.     

Civic Engagement for Nursing Home Residents: A Call for Social Work Action

Civic engagement has been found to be associated with a number of emotional and physical benefits for older adults. For those residing in nursing homes, however, opportunities for civic engagement are limited. Societal barriers such as ageism and practical issues such as transportation can limit their access to activities that promote civic engagement. In this article, we review past research on civic engagement for older adults and explore the challenges and barriers faced by nursing home residents. We conclude with a call for social work professionals to develop, implement, and evaluate interventions that increase civic engagement opportunities for this undervalued group.     

Self-Reported Ageism in Social Work Practitioners and Students

In this study, we focus on self-reported ageism in college students and social service providers using the Relating to Older People Evaluation (ROPE; Cherry & Palmore, 2008 Cherry, K. E. and Palmore, E. B. 2008. Relating to Older People Evaluation (ROPE): A measure of self–reported ageism. Educational Gerontology, 34: 849–861. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The ROPE is a 20-item questionnaire that measures positive and negative ageist behaviors that people engage in during everyday life. Participants included undergraduate and graduate social work students and practicing social service providers in the nursing home and mental health setting. Findings indicate that people of varying educational backgrounds and occupational experience in social services readily admit to positive ageist behaviors. Item analyses revealed similarities and differences between groups in the most and least frequent forms of ageism endorsed. Ageism as a social phenomenon with implications related to social work policy and practice is discussed.     

Changing Places: Men Replace Women in Mental Health Beds in Britain

Based on census materials collected in England and Wales from 1921 to 1991, this study focuses on gender differences in occupancy rates in hospitals and other mental health facilities in Britain. The results suggest that since 1991, or for the first time in the twentieth century, there are more males than females in residential mental health facilities in Britain. Furthermore, this pattern of association holds for all age groups except those aged 65 years and over. Second, there are currently two distinct subpopulations in mental health facilities—a male group which is predominantly of working age, and a female group, which is predominantly of retirement age. The existence of these two "care" populations will impact significantly on current and future resourcing of mental health services. The policy implications of the research findings are discussed within the context of the debates on the changing relationship between gender and mental health.     

Well–Being: Concepts and Measures

Well–being, or quality of life, is a continuing goal for individuals and a major criterion for the evaluation of governments and societies. As a research concept, however, it has been marked by persisting problems of definition and measurement and by uncertainties about its changing pattern over the life course. In this article, these issues are discussed; the concept of well–being is "unpacked" and a model of stocks and flows is described as applicable to the analysis of well–being. Finally, the concept of resilience is proposed as important for research on well–being in relation to age.     

Aging and New Vision Loss: Disruptions of the Here and Now

This paper treats time and space as two central perceptual categories that are disrupted when an older person confronts new vision loss. Qualitative research findings are presented, describing (1) the "invisible," "unknowable," and "hostile" relationships to objects and space often experienced by older persons with recent blindness; and (2) the consequent disruption of their previous ordering of time. Such challenges to these perceptual categories force newly blind older persons to question their ability to manipulate the environment and to participate in social relationships. Consequently, these perceptual disruptions make them vulnerable to both self-imposed tentativeness and externally generated labeling processes that identify them as incompetent.     

Perspectives of Taiwanese practitioners on therapeutic reactions to disclosure of childhood sexual abuse

Disclosure of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is a difficult decision, because CSA is a traumatic experience. Because of the sensitive nature of CSA in Taiwan, reactions to disclosure of CSA in treatment contexts can be challenging for practitioners. Little is known about Taiwanese practitioners' reactions to disclosure that occurs while they are working with CSA survivors. In-depth, phenomenological interviews were used to fully explore three practitioners' clinical reactions to disclosure of CSA. The significant categories and themes that emerged from the study are discussed. Limitations and implications of the present study and recommendations for future research are addressed.     

Models for fuzzy nominal data

Numerical techniques and measurement procedures are proposed for processing nominal (or qualitative) data in situations where coders must assign observations or data to categories in an a priori classification scheme. Such situations arise most commonly in survey research, where data from open-ended questions must be rendered compatible with the requirements for computerized data sets. These techniques have the advantage of allowing the coder to make categories flexible rather than hard-edged. They also provide statistical guidelines for assessing the relative empirical worth of researchers' category schemes. The framework within which the techniques are developed is based on the theory of fuzzy sets. The fundamental concept involved is that an element may belong partially to a set rather than belonging either totally or not at all, and an element may belong partially to more than one set simultaneously. Topics covered in the paper include: P ]

1. Measuring the degree of coder ambiguity about category membership of data;
2. Evaluating the fuzziness of category schemes;
3. Diagnosing the sources of fuzziness in such schemes; and
4. The multivariate analysis of fuzzy nominal data.

     

Defining the Research Category in Pediatric Phase I Oncology Trials

Clinical research studies in children are classified by risk into three major categories. These are as follows: a) minimal risk studies, b) more than minimal risk studies but with benefit, and c) studies with minor increase over minimal risk but with no benefit.

Pediatric Phase I oncology trials, which are conducted in a highly vulnerable population of severely ill children with cancer, are designed to establish safety and to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), as well as establish dose limiting toxicity (DLT). These types of studies can be associated with significant risk. The research design of such high- risk studies, which comprise short-term treatments with varying doses, is generally not associated with any clinical benefit. Classification of the research category in these pediatric studies poses a special problem for the Institutional Review Board (IRB) with major implications for the consenting process. The challenges associated with the classification of such studies are discussed in this article.     

University‐industry relationships in genetic research: Potential opportunities and pitfalls

Changes in the environment in which university research is conducted, in conjunction with the development of new research technologies such as biotechnology, are contributing to the proliferation and diversification of university‐industry relationships. This paper describes and documents university‐industry relationships in five categories: research contracts, technology transfer activities, consultancies, employment, and gifts. Special emphasis is given to biotechnology research relations. Conflicts that may arise from these relations are discussed and studies evaluating the potential impacts of university‐industry relationships are summarized. While wide‐spread abuse has not been reported, subtle changes in university research may be occurring. Using the University of Tennessee as a case study, the paper ends with a discussion of the difficulties of establishing guidelines and procedures to prevent and settle conflicts of interest that might result from university‐industry relationships.     

Violence Across the Lifespan: Interconnections Among Forms of Abuse as Described by Marginalized Canadian Elders and their Care-givers

Elder abuse is recognized as a major problem, with profoundeffects on the health and quality of life of older persons.In our aging population, elder abuse represents an escalatingclinical issue for social workers and health care professionalswho provide care to older people. A major gap in our examinationof elder abuse is the potential contribution and applicationof knowledge developed within research derived from other formsof family violence. This paper explores the interconnectionsamong various forms of violence across the lifespan, and theexperiences voiced by marginalized elders and their care providers.We interviewed seventy-seven rarely consulted older adults andforty-three formal and informal care-givers of older adultsin focus groups in Ontario and Alberta, Canada. Study findingsrevealed four major themes that describe interconnections amongtypes of abuse: (i) intergenerational cycles of abuse; (ii)violence across the lifespan; (iii) exposure to multiple subtypesof elder abuse; and (iv) ongoing spouse abuse that shifted intoelder abuse. The results from this study indicate that victimsoften ‘suffer in silence’ and cultural factors,ageism and gender are ubiquitous to elder abuse. Recommendationsto reduce elder abuse include education, formal and informalsupports and services.