Effect of outgroup social categorization by host-country nationals on expatriate premature return intention and buffering effect of mentoring

Outgroup social categorization by host-country nationals (HCNs) is a common challenge for expatriates and it has received inadequate scholarly attention in expatriate research. This study explores how outgroup social categorization affects expatriate intention to terminate international assignments prematurely and how this adversity can be lessened through organizational mentoring interventions. We theorize that outgroup social categorization by HCNs results in social isolation for expatriates, which triggers expatriates' early return intentions, and mentoring mitigates this indirect effect. The hypotheses were supported by the analyses of multisource data collected from expatriates and their local co-workers in multinational enterprises operating in China. Theoretical and practical implications of the research findings are discussed.     

The Determinants of the Boundary-spanning Functions of Japanese Self-initiated Expatriates in Japanese Subsidiaries in China: Individual Skills and Human Resource Management

Self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) who work for a subsidiary of a multinational enterprise from their country of origin and hence are familiar with both countries' language and culture can be expected to act as boundary-spanners between the assigned expatriates sent from the parent country and host country nationals, and between the headquarters and the subsidiary. We develop a new model of boundary-spanning that encompasses both individual and organizational antecedents and validate the model using survey data from Japanese-affiliated companies in China. We find that familiarity with Chinese language and culture and the potential dual allegiance of SIEs contribute to enhancing their boundary-spanning behavior. We also find that relationships of trust among the parties concerned (social capital) and global career opportunities for such self-initiated expatriates (geocentric staffing) have positive influences on their dual allegiance. Finally, normative and systems integration of human resource management are associated with increasing levels of social capital and geocentric staffing.     

The international training of expatriates in Western subsidiaries of emerging multinational enterprises: A knowledge-based perspective

There is a considerable gap in academic theoretical literature about the international training of expatriates in multinational enterprises (MNEs). While the majority of research has focused on developed (Western) multinationals operating in developing countries, very limited research has been conducted on emerging multinational enterprises (EMNEs) operating in developed countries and the expatriates who work in them. In this study, we explore the international training of expatriates in Indian MNEs from the information technology industry operating in Australia to examine how they provide training to their expatriate staff who are sent on international assignments. We collected qualitative data in the form of multiple case studies via interviews with senior executives based in the Australian subsidiaries. Our findings reveal that Indian IT MNEs provide a variety of centralised training programmes for their managerial and technical expatriates and use training as a key instrument to leverage and transfer home country knowledge to their Australian subsidiaries. We also found that each stakeholder involved in the training process plays a distinct role in the knowledge transfer process, which allows Indian EMNEs to integrate the training with their people-centred business model to deliver IT services in host countries.     

Managing Yopatriates: A Longitudinal Study of Generation Y Expatriates in an Indian Multi-national Corporation

This paper provides a study of HRM practices for a new category of expatriates - “Yopatriates” - who we note as young, highly qualified and mobile, Generation Y (Gen Y) knowledge workers. In contrast to traditional expatriates, Yopatriates typify non-traditional forms of expatriation wherein they seek short-term international assignments to suit their individual (internal, rather than organisational or external) career orientations of learning and travel. We study this group using a case study analysis of a large Indian Multi National Corporation (MNC) delivering global information technology (IT) and business process offshoring (BPO) services. Our study presents the HRM practices adopted to manage both expatriates as well as Yopatriates at the case organisation being studied within an India setting. We further evaluate the extent to which internal HR practices of Yopatriates were characterised, by a desire to emulate or adopt what were regarded as global ‘HR best practices’. Our distinctive contribution lies in extending the literature by developing a distinctive theoretical category of non-traditional expatriates that (1) highlights a need for a different set of HRM practices; and (2) extends the theory of cultural adjustment in the context of Yopatriates. Evidence suggests that these practices were complementary and at the same time contradictory to ‘indigenous’ localised practices during the period of research and complied with two of the four arguments we make in our model.     

Cross-cultural training and its impact on expatriate performance in Australian MNEs

This study examines cross-cultural training (CCT) policies and practices in terms of provision, mode of delivery and level of rigor, and the relative effects of different CCT programmes on expatriates in Australian multinational enterprises (MNEs). The empirical evidence suggests that the case study Australian MNEs tended to provide highly rigorous CCT, mainly in the form of short-term international assignments, which, however, are yet to be perceived as CCT in the CCT literature. Short-term assignments had a stronger impact on expatriates in terms of cross-cultural adjustment and reducing expatriate failure rate than did in-country CCT. The findings of this study contribute to the debate whether MNEs normally provide expatriates with adequate CCT, and have significant implications for practitioners and further research.     

Managing expatriates to achieve mutual benefits: An integrative model and analysis

Embracing a mutual-benefit perspective of expatriation management, this study argues that multinational enterprises (MNEs) seeking to build a sustainable expatriation management system should address the goals of both expatriates and organisations simultaneously. To realize such a system, we propose ability-, motivation- and opportunity-attributes as a tripod of expatriate competence-enhancing practices (EC-Ps). Via a matched survey dataset from 150 expatriates and their headquarters (HQs) managers, this study (1) investigates the effects of implementing EC-Ps on both subsidiary and employee outcomes, and (2) explores a sequential mediation mechanism of cross-cultural competence and subsidiary autonomy between the relationships. The implications of the findings for theory and practice are discussed.     

Consequences of expatriate top manager replacement on foreign subsidiary performance

Integrating expatriate staffing and leadership succession literature, this study investigates the influence of expatriate top manager replacement on foreign subsidiary performance and the moderating effects of subsidiary context. Building on a refined understanding of agency theory and evidence from 2113 firm-year observations, including 260 expatriate successions, this study shows that when expatriates are replaced, regardless by whom (either host-country national or expatriate manager), the performance of the subsidiaries declines, suggesting that the departure of expatriate top managers often see subsidiaries being left in a less than favorable condition. If the subsidiary's prior performance has been unsatisfactory, the newly appointed expatriate might not be able to prevent further deterioration of its performance. Replacing expatriates with host-country national managers can help improve subsidiary performance, but this usually happens in older, more established subsidiaries. These findings framed in a refined agency theory provide us a more in-depth understanding of expatriate staffing failure.     

'The land of smiles': people issues in Thailand

This paper explores Indonesia's Javanese culture and the way to develop closer relationship between expatriates and the host country nationals. Previous research determined that strong social relationship is a major factor in enhancing expatriate adjustment and the overall business operations in Indonesia. This article examines two factors underlining the Javanese culture: (1) the concept of social status and (2) the Javanese business values. The article also suggests three human resource development interventions that may enhance expatriates' understanding of the Javanese culture and that may assist them in building strong relationships with the locals: (1) cross-cultural training, (2) storytelling technique and (3) boundary spanning activities.     

Expatriate contact with a local host: an intervention to increase social support

Social capital is a crucial factor for expatriates to employ as they cope with the demands of an international assignment. This longitudinal study used a mixed method approach to examine the social support benefits of expatriate contact with a local host. Western expatriates in the Netherlands were randomly divided into two groups: an experimental group (n = 33), that had contact with a Dutch host during 9 months, and a control group (n = 32) with no host. Qualitative methods such as interviews and diaries were included to shed light on the various types of social support that occurred. Results show that local hosts offered all four types of social support: social companionship, informational support, emotional support, and instrumental support. Furthermore, expatriates with a host increased their social capital; they received significantly more social support from host nationals than did those without a host. This study shows that HRD professionals may develop the social capital of expatriates by bringing them into contact with a local host, which can produce more social support from host nationals. Increased social capital may lead to a higher performance at both the individual and organisational levels.     

Equity sharing in international joint ventures: an empirical analysis of strategic and environmental determinants

Equity sharing in international joint ventures (IJVs) is a critical issue with implications for risk sharing, resource allocation, knowledge commitment, and organizational control. As a departure from previous research, this study aims to explore strategic antecedents and environmental dimensions underlying sharing arrangements. It argues that the structure of equity sharing controls the ex post degree of economic exposure or risk propensity, and boosts risk-adjusted returns earned from strategic resources or global integration. Analysis of data collected from IJVs in China suggests that strategic orientation, resource dependence, knowledge protection, and global integration as sought by MNEs are important antecedents of equity sharing. Equity sharing is an inverse function of host-country environmental complexity and hostility as perceived by MNE managers.     

Forgotten travelers: Adjustment and career implications of international business travel for expatriates

In this study, we demonstrate the importance of assessing international business travel in the context of expatriation. Based on the Job Demands-Resources theory, we suggest that engaging in international business travel is beneficial for expatriates when certain conditions are in place and detrimental when they are not. We propose that expatriates who have adequate job resources will reap the benefits of international business travel and achieve better adjustment to living and working in the host country and have greater career satisfaction. Survey results based on a sample of 161 expatriates provide support that engaging in international business travel is positively and indirectly related to expatriates' career satisfaction through expatriate adjustment when job resources are abundant, and it has a negative indirect association when resources are low. We further find that job resources play a role in the relationship between international business travel and career satisfaction primarily when the host-country culture is similar to that of the home country.     

When do host country nationals help expatriates? The roles of identification with the multinational enterprise and career development support by the subsidiary

In this study, we examine the roles of the host country nationals (HCNs)' identification with the MNE and perceptions of subsidiary's career development support as key factors in explaining the HCNs' decisions to provide help to expatriates. Using data collected in four countries (Australia, China, India, and Singapore), we show that HCNs' identification with the MNE and subsidiary's career development support are positively related to their extra-role helping behavior toward the expatriates. Further, the positive relationship between MNE identification and extra-role helping behavior becomes stronger when HCNs perceive that their career development is well supported by the subsidiary. We also provide post-hoc analyses to explore the potential differences of the four host countries in these relations.     

MNC Considerations in Identifying and Managing LGB Expatriate Stigmatization

Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) expatriates are rightfully sceptical, and at times fearful, of international assignment experiences, owing to the sometimes hostile reception at assignment locations as a result of their sexual orientation. The authors argue that this hostility arises from a perceived incompatibility in values between the host country and LGB expatriates. Dissonance between the two value systems leaves LGB expatriates seemingly powerless to self‐manage imposed stigmas inside and outside the workplace at international assignment locations. The authors suggest that it is essential for the multinational corporation (MNC) to help manage these stigmas by implementing human resource management (HRM) practices and policies that recognize the needs of traditional and non‐traditional expatriates as substantially different. Using organizational legitimacy theory, the authors assert that MNCs’ strategic actions should entail a set of distinct practices and policies for LGB expatriates as a way to strive for acceptance within the LGB expatriate community and beyond. Managing value congruence in this manner ensures greater willingness of the LGB talent pool to undertake international career opportunities and is likely to result in better assignment experiences and outcomes. Outcomes of LGB stigmatization are discussed and suggestions are put forward on the MNC's role in supporting LGB expatriates and their families. Propositions relative to support are offered.     

High-involvement work practices and employee engagement

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships between high involvement work practices (HIWPs) and employee engagement. HIWPs consist of four main attributes: (a) power – employees have the power to make decisions and/or to participate in decision-making; (b) information – information is shared among employees; (c) reward – employees are rewarded for their good performance; and (d) knowledge – employees are provided with the necessary training to do their work. This paper investigates the connections between engagement and each of these practices, and proposes a conceptual model that links these relationships. It starts by providing a brief overview of HIWPs, followed by a discussion on the connections between HIWPs and engagement, and a conclusion and discussion of implications for practice and research.     

Trust in management and knowledge sharing: The mediating effects of fear and knowledge documentation

Knowledge sharing within and between teams is of vital importance for organizations. The influence of interpersonal trust in general and trust in management in particular on knowledge sharing is evident. However, it is not clear how the relationship between interpersonal trust and knowledge sharing works. This study provides a better understanding of that relationship by demonstrating that fear of losing one's unique value and knowledge documentation have a mediating effect on the relationship between trust in management and knowledge sharing. Specifically, trust in management increases knowledge sharing through reducing fear of losing one's unique value and improving willingness to document knowledge. These findings have important implications at both a managerial and theoretical level. For managers, this paper emphasizes the individual's central role in the knowledge sharing process in terms of knowledge documentation and fear of losing one's unique value. On the theoretical level, this study provides empirical evidence for two mechanisms that help explain the effect of trust in management on knowledge sharing. In future research, this study could be extended to include other psychosocial phenomena that enable knowledge sharing in organizations.     

Managing Imbalanced Supply Chain Relationships for Sustainability: A Power Perspective

This study adopts a power perspective to investigate sustainable supply chain relationships and specifically uses resource‐dependence theory (RDT) to critically analyze buyer–supplier–supplier relationships. Empirical evidence is provided, extending the RDT model in this context. The concept of power relationships is explored through a qualitative study of a multinational company and agricultural growers in the UK food industry that work together to implement sustainable practices. We look at multiple triadic relationships involving a large buyer and its small suppliers to investigate how relative power affects the implementation of sustainable supply‐management practices. The study highlights that power as dependence is relevant to understanding compliance in sustainable supply chains and to identifying appropriate relationship‐management strategies to build more sustainable supply chains. We show the influences of power on how players manage their relationships and how it affects organizational responses to the implementation of sustainability initiatives. Power notably influences the sharing of sustainability‐related risks and value between supply chain partners. From a managerial perspective, the study contributes to developing a better understanding of how power can become an effective way to achieve sustainability goals. This article offers insights into the way in which a large organization works with small and medium size enterprises to implement sustainable practices and shows how power management—that is, the way in which power is used—can support or hinder effective cooperation around sustainability in the supply chain.     

Building Bridges in Global Virtual Teams: The Role of Multicultural Brokers in Overcoming the Negative Effects of Identity Threats on Knowledge Sharing Across Subgroups

Global virtual teams experience difficulties in knowledge sharing, often related to identity threats that emerge across subgroups. In this conceptual paper we adopt the integrative model of subgroup relations to explore the role of multicultural brokers, i.e. team members or leaders who transcend different cultural boundaries and help to bridge differences among colleagues in different subgroups, in positively influencing the relationship between identity threats and knowledge sharing. We propose that identity threats across subgroups of global virtual teams have a negative impact on knowledge sharing quality and quantity. We contend that the presence of multicultural brokers help alleviate the negative effects of identity threats over knowledge sharing through a curvilinear moderating effect. We further propose that role (leader versus member), type of appointment (formal versus emergent), situated coworker familiarity with different subgroup members, and level of cultural intelligence of the multicultural broker play unique moderating roles on the relationship between identity threats and knowledge sharing quality and quantity. Our research offers theoretical contribution to the literature on subgroup relationships and knowledge sharing in global virtual teams and practical implications for managers and MNEs, helping guide management efforts.     

The role of organisational drivers of exploration and exploitation – Market dynamism as a contingency factor

Simultaneously engaging in exploration and exploitation is crucial to firms' short- and long-term survival. Therefore, it is remarkable that many open questions remain regarding organisational contextual factors which support these distinct and complementary practices. Consequently, this study analyses the relations of three knowledge-related organisational contextual factors, namely customer involvement, knowledge sharing, and data-driven decision-making, with exploratory and exploitative practices. We further propose that these relationships are contingent on the degree of market dynamism, which we identify as a pivotal environmental contingency factor. To test our hypotheses, we create and compare two structural equation models based on a sample of 779 German firms, which we split at the median value of market dynamism. The relationships of knowledge sharing and data-driven decision-making with exploitation are positive, stable, and contingent on the degree of market dynamism, while the relations between the organisational factors and exploration tend to be less systematic. These findings foster a nuanced understanding of knowledge-related organisational contextual factors facilitating organisations’ simultaneous pursuit of exploration and exploitation in dependence on the market environment, which has not been extensively researched yet. Moreover, we illuminate links between the research on exploration and exploitation, ambidexterity, open innovation, information systems, and strategic management.     

Improving Expatriation Success: The Roles of Regulatory Focus and Burnout

The study empirically and theoretically contributes to the human resource management discipline by developing and testing a cohesive model drawing on the pertinent literature from expatriate management, burnout and regulatory focus theory. Drawing on data from 233 expatriate managers, the study aims to examine the relationships between expatriate adjustment and the outcomes of job satisfaction and withdrawal cognitions via expatriate burnout. Specifically, the findings reveal that (a) higher levels of both work adjustment and interaction adjustment lead to reduced expatriate burnout, with the former having a greater effect on burnout than the latter; (b) burnout serves as a full mediator between work adjustment and withdrawal cognitions, and a partial mediator between work adjustment and job satisfaction; and (c) regulatory focus serves to moderate expatriate adjustment–outcome consequences, i.e. promotion‐focused (as opposed to prevention‐focused) expatriates demonstrate a stronger burnout–job satisfaction relationship. Several implications are extracted from the study for regulatory theory, burnout and expatriation management practices as well as suggested avenues for future research.     

Customer knowledge sharing in cross-border mergers and acquisitions: The role of customer motivation and promise management

Knowledge is a vital source of competitive advantage and renewal for contemporary organizations. However, to date, few studies have scrutinized how mergers and acquisitions (M&As)—processes dependent on knowledge sharing—offer a valuable inter-organizational context through which to understand the attainment of customer knowledge sharing following M&As. Applying an integrated theoretical perspective from customer relationship management and M&A performance research, we study a Chinese–Finnish acquisition and customer firms of the acquired party across four advanced Western countries. We find that customer knowledge sharing is an active relationship management process that relies on the factors of customer dedication-based motivation vs. customer concerns about M&As to maintain relationships after acquisitions. In addition, and more importantly, we find that the promise management mechanisms—making promises, enabling promises, and keeping promises—of the M&A parties reinforce the motivational factors to maintain customer knowledge sharing in cross-border M&As. We propose a conceptual framework of customer knowledge sharing in cross-border M&As.