GENDER AND OFF-FARM EMPLOYMENT IN TWO FARMING SYSTEMS: Responses to Farm Crisis in the Cornbelt and the Mississippi Delta

An important farm household survival strategy in the 1980s agricultural crisis was off-farm employment. Recent research shows that gender role expectations structure off-farm employment's effects on farm operations. However, this research does not evaluate off-farm employment's effects within different socioeconomic and cultural settings. This article explores case studies of two localities with different farming systems: family farming in the Cornbelt and capitalist (or wage labor) farming in the Mississippi Delta. Farmers in two counties representative of each system responded to mail questionnaires covering various topics including farm and household changes made during the 1980s financial crisis. Loglinear modèls estimating the relationship between changes in off-farm employment and selected changes in farm operations derive results for the Cornbelt that confirm previous studies. Women's off-farm employment, in particular, relates to a variety of changes in the farm enterprise and improves its capital position. As expected, given its historic separation of household and enterprise, the Mississippi Delta evinces no such pattern of change. These results indicate the need for additional research on this topic, comparing different agrarian class structures.     

Farm Structure and Chemical Use in the Corn Belt1

Why do certain full-time farming operations embrace low-chemical input production practices and not others? Historical records of production from 25 randomly-sampled participants reflecting the conventional approach to production were systematically compared with 14 purposively-chosen low-input farming operations in three Iowa counties. Empirical indicators revealed a consistent relationship between increasing scale and chemical use intensity. In addition, younger family farm operators were more likely to adopt low-input practices. The causal mechanisms that account for these differences in chemical use are presented and related to long-standing debates regarding farm structure and class differentiation in capitalist agriculture.     

Food Calorie Intake under Grain Price Uncertainty in Rural Nepal

This study evaluated the effects of grain output price uncertainty on the farm income of rural households and, consequently, how this uncertainty influenced caloric intake through changes in farm income. Using a national rural household survey data set in Nepal, augmented with output price uncertainty measures calculated from historical time-series data, we found that grain output price uncertainty (especially for rice and wheat) tends to decrease crop production income of rural households. In addition, we found that lower crop income from production decreases calorie intake of rural households. Taken together, these results suggest that output price uncertainty during the production process tends to reduce caloric intake of rural Nepalese households. The price uncertainty seemed to reduce the crop income households need to buy calorie-rich staple foods.     

Why is diversification an attractive farm adjustment strategy? Insights from Texas farmers and ranchers

State agencies have been encouraging the development of different enterprises to diversify farm incomes in an effort to retain farmers in business, attract new entrants to agriculture and promote regional development. Entrepreneurship and farming are known to be driven by a complex set of goals including those which are economic and intrinsic in nature. However, little information is available regarding the set of goals that drive agriculture entrepreneurship, preventing state agencies to adequately target potential diversifiers. This paper provides a better understanding of the range of goals, both financial and nonfinancial, that are important in farmers' decisions to diversify their operations. The generation of additional income, the continuance of farming and ranching, and the enhancement of quality of life are among the most important diversification goals in Texas. A principal component factor analysis performed on the importance ratings of diversification goals resulted in six dimensions: (F1) Reduce Uncertainty and Risk; (F2) Grow and Service Markets; (F3) Enhanced Financial Condition; (F4) Individual Aspirations and Pursuits; (F5) Revenues Enhancement; and (F6) Family Connections. The study also examined the relationship between various entrepreneur and farm characteristics and the goal pursuit dimensions. Operator's age, number of generations the farm had been in the family, household income, number of farm employees, and distance to an urbanized area influence types of goals pursued through diversification.     

Farm pluriactivity and rural policy: Some evidence from Wales1

Drawing on data from 427 interviews in Wales, U.K., this paper examines the ability of internal and external variables to explain the phenomenon of pluriactivity in farm households. It is the household as a unit, and the process of maintaining its viability, that forms the focus of the study, with pluriactivity being defined as the generation of income additional to that from primary agriculture, by any member of the household.The survey revealed that, whilst primary agriculture retains its position as the main income, only a minority of households did not have a supplemental source of income. Indeed, these ‘other sources’ can be financially very important. Off-farm work was the most significant type. A degree of differentiation was apparent between farmer, spouse and other family members and the type of incomegenerating activity.Internal variables (particularly physical farm size, farm type, education and ethnicity) are shown to have some statistical ability to explain the patterns of pluriactivity.Pluriactivity is of interest in the present environment of agricultural policy reform. However, there is some evidence that pluriactivity is not driven solely by financial pressure or policy measures aimed at farm diversification. The paper concludes that policy aimed at the diversification of the farm business may be less than successful as many internal and external factors appear to work to restrict such activities. Most of the contemporary growth in pluriactivity has been in the form of off-farm jobs — a policy sector presently divorced from farm/agricultural policy.     

Farm household survival strategies and diversification on marginal farms

On marginal farms, and in agriculture in general, sustainability is largely guaranteed by a broad range of survival strategies, closely interlinked and embedded in the household structure of typical family farms. This paper reports results of a socio-economic study carried out among Belgian farmers, focusing specifically on the opportunities offered by different forms of diversification. Analyses from in-depth interviews indicate the possible role of new activities in the survival of many farms. The curative potential of this strategy is, however, strongly conditioned by the availability of capital within the household. Therefore, off-farm employment is often the most accessible strategy, not only for the survival of the household, but also for supplementing the income necessary to maintain the farm activities.     

Rural Agricultural Change and Individual Out‐migration

We investigate the impact of household use of labor‐saving farm technologies on first‐time out‐migration after the household agriculture and consumption survey was conducted in 1996. Building on the labor substitution framework, we hypothesize that household use of labor‐saving technologies (e.g., tractors, farm implements, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides) increases individual out‐migration. To estimate the effects of the use of labor‐saving farm technologies on out‐migration, we use uniquely detailed panel data from the rapidly changing rural agrarian, migrant‐sending setting of Nepal. The results of our multilevel, discrete‐time, event history models suggest that net of other known factors associated with out‐migration, household use of farm technology—particularly the use of tractors—significantly increases out‐migration.     

Gambling participation in Australia: findings from the national Household Expenditure Survey

Regression modeling is used to predict gambling patterns in Australia on the basis of the unit record files underlying the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ Household Expenditure Survey of 6,892 households. The four largest categories of gambling expenditure are examined, namely: lottery tickets, lotto-type games and instant lottery (scratch cards), TAB (pari-mutuel wagering) and related on course betting, and poker (slot) machines and ticket machines. Determining factors analyzed include the source and level of household income, family composition and structure, welfare status, gender, age, ethnicity and geographic location. Apart from the determinants of expenditure varying widely across the different types of gambling activity, the results generally indicate that the source of household income is more important than the level of income and that household composition and regional location are likewise significant in determining gambling expenditure.      

The Differing Values of Multigeneration and First‐Generation Farmers: Their Influence on the Structure of Agriculture at the Rural‐Urban Interface

Recognizing the inherent pressures on farm families and farmland, USDA has been developing policies and programs that simultaneously attempt to retain existing farm families on the landscape, recruit new farmers, and create lasting economic opportunities rooted in agriculture. In this article we argue that to date there has been an overemphasis on economic and structural approaches and a systematic discounting of the way individual farmer and farm household motivations can differ as they relate to the farm household life cycle, enterprise growth, adaptation, and reproduction. We use a sociological lens to qualitatively and quantitatively examine the social differences between multigeneration and first‐generation farmers at the rural‐urban interface by exploring how economic and noneconomic values influence succession plans and enterprise structure. We find that the answers to these questions are complex, layered, and not static, as farm households cycle through the life course. We describe how the differences between young and old multigeneration and first‐generation farmers can influence the structure of agriculture at the rural‐urban interface, and conclude with some practical policy recommendations.     

Ergonomic interventions in weeding operations for drudgery reduction of hill farm women of India

Weeding is an important time consuming and drudgery prone task mainly performed by hill farm women for almost all crops grown. This directs for interventions in terms of improved technologies (weeder, kutla and hoes) to relieve women from high energy demands, time spent and associated drudgery particularly for weeding activity. The study was conducted in two hill states of India viz. Himachal Pradesh (35 villages and 1500 representative samples) and Uttrakhand (10 villages and 500 representative samples). Experimental data were conducted on representative sub sample of 60 hill farm women of both states to assess physiological workload and musculo-skeletal problems both while working with traditional tools along with improved tools by employing selected parameters viz. physical fitness level, physiological parameters etc. The results showed that heart rate values were more than acceptable limits for task performed with the traditional tools as compared with improved tools. Significant reduction in the heart rate was observed while working with improved tools. Analysis of MSDs showed that the postural stress and severity of pain in various body parts was reduced by adopting new technology. Hence, the use of improved weeding tools is recommended over the existing ones for drudgery reduction.     

Vacation farms and ecotourism in Saskatchewan, Canada

Vacation farms represent an increasingly significant rural diversification option for chronically unstable agriculture-based economies such as Saskatchewan. Concurrently, ecotourism is a rapidly expanding form of tourism which could serve to enhance the recreation product of such rural enterprises. Accordingly, a self-administered questionnaire was sent to all listed vacation farm operators in the province to obtain information on the provision of ecotourism opportunities. Just over one-half (n = 40) of all operations returned a completed questionnaire. Of 23 listed recreation options, wildlife viewing was cited as the activity most frequently undertaken by vacation farm visitors, followed by hunting, casual photography and touring. Wildlife viewing occurred most commonly during the spring and summer, with access to the resource occurring mainly on foot, and less so by horse and vehicle. Birds were the most important category of wildlife viewed, followed by mammals and plants; reptiles/amphibians, insects and fish were of only minor significance. It was evident that the sampled vacation farm operators possessed very little training in the area of ecotourism; few barriers or opportunities related to the latter were indicated. Appropriate recommendations include the provision of ecotourism training opportunities, stronger linkages between vacation farms and public spaces, and further investigation into the relationship between wildlife viewing and hunting activities.     

Modelling locational access to markets for pluriactivity: a study in the Grampian region of Scotland

This paper investigates the role of location in determining the presence of on- and off-farm pluriactivity. Gravity models are developed to define degrees of access to markets from farm locations, and farm household survey data from the Grampian Region of Scotland are used to test the ability of the models to explain the observed location of pluriactivity. Proximity to markets is shown to be an important factor for both tourist and non-tourist on-farm diversification, and is reflected in the location of farms with on-farm non-agricultural activities. However, there is no evidence of a relationship between access to labour market opportunities and the presence of off-farm employment at the sub-regional scale. Personal preferences concerning work location and household responsibilities may be more important in determining the presence of off-farm work than proximity to labour market opportunities. Possible refinements to the technique and policy implications are discussed.     

Effects of relative advantage on time use in farm families

An assumption of comparative advantage (CA) is that all members in efficient households specialize in market or household work. The CA for Oregon farm households was measured by differences between husbands and wives in wages and schooling for nonfarm work, and in farm decision-making responsibility and years lived on a farm for farm work. The spouse with the advantage is assumed to spend more time in that work sector and less time in household work than his (her) spouse. The hypothesis is supported for market work. For farm decision making, results are consistent with the hypothesis but not significant. Years lived on a farm is consistent for husbands, but wives who have the CA do significantly less farm work than wives of men who hold the CA. Experience may not be a good measure of CA, or perhaps farm work provides process satisfaction to farm men (and their wives) who work longer hours.She directs the Family Resource Management Graduate Program. Her research interests center on concepts and measures of management, household work, and well-being in the United States and across cultures.His current research interests include family saving and investing behavior. He received his Ph.D. from Oregon State University in 1992. This research was funded by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.     

The politics of pluriactivity in Britain

This paper examines the political context to policies promoting farm diversification in Britain, in an attempt to understand both the fundamental contradictions which lie within these policies and the particular emphasis placed upon on-farm diversification in Britain. The paper begins therefore with an analysis of the politics of British agriculture in the 1980s, and then focuses in detail on policies which promote farm diversification. Finally, the paper compares these policies with evidence of trends and characteristics of pluriactivity in Britain, and suggests three major contradictions between government policies and observed farm household behaviour. A majority of farm households see little need to diversify and have even less inclination to do so. Any redeployment of on-farm resources is most likely to occur on the sale or transfer of the farm, and is unlikely to offer a source of alternative income for poor farmers.     

Household Saving Behavior and the Influence of Family-Owned Business

This study focused on the lifecycle income objective of business-owning (farm and nonfarm) households. We hypothesized that the complex relationship between household and business management decisions had the potential to challenge predictions from standard household savings theory. Specifically, we tested for differences in saving behavior of these entrepreneurial households relative to the average US household. A limited dependent variable model was performed, keying in on the saving behavior and ability of household respondents in the Survey of Consumer Finances for 2007. The estimation results indicated that, along with standard demographic influences of savings models, households owning a farm or nonfarm business had a significantly higher likelihood of maintaining private saving in a given year. Our results highlight the necessity for future research on household saving behavior to account for the differing objectives and choice sets faced by households that own businesses when conducting analyses of household saving.     

Horizontal Inequities in the German Tax-Benefit-System: The Case of Two Wage-Earner Employee Households

The question of how horizontal equity between families in the tax-benefit-system is affected by the within-household distribution of earnings has not been systematically analyzed so far. Using an arithmetic model accounting for all relevant parts of the German tax-benefit-system we explored this aspect in detail. From our calculations it became evident that the combined burden of taxes, social security contributions, and transfers was significantly affected by the distribution of earnings between spouses and that the effect differs with respect to total household income. Overall, the German tax-benefit-system favors an unequal income distribution within the household. Applying the model on empirical data taken from the most recent German Income and Expenditure Survey, we were able to quantify these effects. According to our results, total disposable income of the households analyzed would increase by about €5.5 billion per year if all wage income within households would be allocated to a single-earner.     

Who Plays What? Participation Profiles in Chance Versus Skill-based Gambling

To determine whether gambling participation falls into skill and chance-based categories and, if so, to determine the socio-demographic characteristics associated with these different categories. A cross-sectional analysis of all respondents to the 2005 Northern Territory Gambling Prevalence Survey who gambled in the 12 months prior to the survey. Factor analysis was employed to determine whether a chance versus skill-based dichotomy described the structure of gambling participation. Gambler preference groups were constructed using the median of rotated factor scores. Multinomial logit regression was then used to determine independent associations between explanatory variables and categories of gambler preferences. The skill and chance-based dichotomy did describe player preferences for the sample of adult gamblers in the Northern Territory, Australia. Gender, age, household income, household structure and the geographic location (access to gambling opportunities) of respondents were all associated with different degrees of participation in skill and chance based gambling activities. Notably, respondents 35 years and over were significantly over-represented in the low-skill/high-chance participation group, and under-represented in the high-skill/low-chance group. It is clear that the term gambling is a confounding rubric that hides differences both in the type of activity and the socio-demographic profiles of participants. An examination of the latter raises important questions about the role of chance in later life, as well as the role of self-determination in gambling for other groups, particularly younger men.     

The Dimensions of Agricultural Diversification: A Spatial Analysis of Italian Municipalities

Diversification in agriculture could ensure the survival of farming by broadening the income base of farms and encouraging agricultural sustainability. The diversification of on-farm activities may depend on socioeconomic and environmental characteristics. Although multifunctionality is a hotly debated topic, few papers have focused on the farm characteristics that influence diversification and none have focused on the influence of the spatial pattern. This paper examines the relationship between farm characteristics and the adoption of a specific type of diversification. An econometric model is presented that uses a spatial autoregressive lag model at the municipal scale. The results demonstrate that the activation of each diversification dimension is influenced by both internal and external factors, encompassing farmers’ characteristics, the farm structure, and territorial features, including regional and spatial patterns. Deepening is mainly influenced by the farmer’s age, education, and the presence of small and labor-intensive farms. The key factors for broadening diversification are the presence of small farms and farms with mixed production (breeding and crop cultivation). Regrounding is most affected by the labor-intensive farms in the area and the farms with mixed production.     

Conventionalization, civic engagement, and the sustainability of organic agriculture

It is often assumed that organic farming is synonymous with sustainable agriculture. The broad goals of sustainable agriculture include economic profitability, environmental stewardship, and community vitality. However, the “question of sustainability” (Ikerd, 2008) can be asked of any type of farming, including organic production. One way to assess sustainability is to consider farmers’ perceptions of the sustainability of their operations. I draw on data from a survey of certified organic producers in Washington State to broaden our understanding of the sustainability of organic agriculture. Specifically, I consider certified organic producers’ perceptions of the degree to which their operations contribute to broad sustainable agriculture goals. Moreover, I use multiple regression to investigate how these perceived contributions are influenced by farm conventionalization variables (e.g., organic acreage, non-organic sales, and specialization) and civic engagement variables (e.g., direct marketing, community group membership, and participation in sustainable/organic agriculture organizations) while controlling for farmer demographics and farm location. Farm conventionalization appears to have a significant negative effect on perceived contributions to environmental and social sustainability, but a significant positive effect on perceived contribution to economic sustainability. Civic engagement appears to have a significant positive effect on perceived contributions to environmental and social sustainability, but no effect on perceived contribution to economic sustainability.