Shake,Rattle, and … One or Two Objects? Young Infants' Use of Auditory Information to Individuate Objects

Most research on object individuation in infants has focused on the visual domain. Yet the problem of object individuation is not unique to the visual system, but shared by other sensory modalities. This research examined 4.5‐month‐old infants' capacity to use auditory information to individuate objects. Infants were presented with events in which they heard 2 distinct sounds, separated by a temporal gap, emanate from behind a wide screen; the screen was then lowered to reveal 1 or 2 objects. Longer looking to the 1‐ than 2‐object display was taken as evidence that the infants (a) interpreted the auditory event as involving 2 objects and (b) found the presence of only 1 object when the screen was lowered unexpected. The results indicated that the infants used sounds produced by rattles, but not sounds produced by an electronic keyboard, as the basis for object individuation (Experiments 1 and 2). Data collected with adult participants revealed that adults are also more sensitive to rattle sounds than electronic tones. A final experiment assessed conditions under which young infants attend to rattle sounds (Experiment 3). Collectively, the outcomes of these experiments suggest that infants and adults are more likely to use some sounds than others as the basis for individuating objects. We propose that these results reflect a processing bias to attend to sounds that reveal something about the physical properties of an object—sounds that are obviously linked to object structure—when determining object identity.     

Symbols of Organization: Informal Ways of Negotiating the Global and the Local in MNCs

Abstract In this article I build on the growing number of anthropological studies of businesses and explore the role that symbols play in the development of globalizing business networks. Transnational business people employ symbols not only to define boundaries between groups and develop collective solidarity but also to construct continuously changing networks between different social spaces and even, in the final analysis, between the concepts of global and local. The case study presented here focuses on the use of the symbols defining ‘German business style’ by the employees of a branch of a German bank in London as they interact with colleagues in the office, staff at their Frankfurt head office, and their clients and competitors. I conclude that, first, the use of symbols in social interaction is key to the negotiation of global and local spaces, and second, that, as the concepts of ‘global’ and ‘local’ spaces are themselves symbolic constructs, the drawing of distinctions between the two may be misleading.     

Spacing, Position, and Order: Interpretive Heuristics for Visual Features of Survey Questions

We present the results of six experiments that demonstrate theimpact of visual features of survey questions on the responsesthey elicit, the response process they initiate, or both. Allsix experiments were embedded in Web surveys. Experiments 1and 2 investigate the effects of the placement of nonsubstantiveresponse options (for example, "No opinion" and "Don’tknow" answer options) in relation to the substantive options.The results suggest that when these options are not differentiatedvisually (by a line or a space) from the substantive options,respondents may be misled about the midpoint of the scale; respondentsseemed to use the visual rather than the conceptual midpointof the scale as a reference point for responding. Experiment3, which varied the spacing of the substantive options, showeda similar result. Responses were pushed in the direction ofthe visual midpoint when it fell to one side of the conceptualmidpoint of the response scale. Experiment 4 examined the effectsof varying whether the response options, which were arrayedvertically, followed a logical progression from top to bottom.Respondents answered more quickly when the options followeda logical order. Experiment 5 examined the effects of the placementof an unfamiliar item among a series of similar items. For example,one set of items asked respondents to say whether several makesand models of cars were expensive or not. The answers for theunfamiliar items depended on the items that were nearby on thelist. Our last experiment varied whether a battery of relateditems was administered on a single screen, across two screens,or with each item on its own screen. The intercorrelations amongthe items were highest when they were all on the same screen.Respondents seem to apply interpretive heuristics in assigningmeaning to visual cues in questionnaires. They see the visualmidpoint of a scale as representing the typical or middle response;they expect options to be arrayed in a progression beginningwith the leftmost or topmost item; and they expect items thatare physically close to be related to each other conceptually.     

Screening for Elder Abuse in Hospitalized Older Adults With Dementia

When older adults with dementia are hospitalized for psychiatric treatment, which elder abuse screen to use is questionable. This article reviews screens to identify desirable characteristics. For clinician completion, the Elder Assessment Instrument and the Brief Abuse Screens for the Elderly are recommended. For the older adult, the brief Hwalek-Sengstock Elder Abuse Screening Test is suitable. The Modified Conflict Tactics Scale, which can be used by both the older adult and the nonprofessional caregiver, has many of the recommended characteristics. Research is necessary in the application of these screens within hospitals to detect elder abuse within this specialized population.     

Screening for elder abuse in hospitalized older adults with dementia

When older adults with dementia are hospitalized for psychiatric treatment, which elder abuse screen to use is questionable. This article reviews screens to identify desirable characteristics. For clinician completion, the Elder Assessment Instrument and the Brief Abuse Screens for the Elderly are recommended. For the older adult, the brief Hwalek-Sengstock Elder Abuse Screening Test is suitable. The Modified Conflict Tactics Scale, which can be used by both the older adult and the nonprofessional caregiver, has many of the recommended characteristics. Research is necessary in the application of these screens within hospitals to detect elder abuse within this specialized population.     

Image concerns in pledges to give blood: Evidence from a field experiment

We use a field experiment to study how social image concerns affect a commonly used strategy to attract new donors: pledges to engage in a charitable activity. While waiting for their appointment, visitors to a local government office are offered sign-ups for blood donations in a crowded waiting room. We randomly vary the visibility of the pledge to donate and the organization for which blood donations are solicited (charitable vs. commercial). Our setting provides natural variation in who observes the pledge. We do not find that visibility increases pledges to donate. Exploring heterogeneity in treatment effects, we find that visibility increases pledges when participants are observed by friends or family. Almost all subjects renege on their pledge.     

Adoption of ergonomic features in a new reach truck cabin design--a usability study

The task of handling reach trucks frequently involves poor working postures. The location of the steering wheel in most reach trucks is in front of the operator which requires the drivers to bend forward and stretch their hands for holding onto the steering wheel. To overcome visibility restrictions, this posture is aggravated by twisting and bending their torso sideways. This paper presents a usability study which was conducted to compare adoption of ergonomic features in a new reach truck cabin with the way they were intended to be employed for improving physical working conditions. Participants drove the reach truck on a test track performing tasks of varying complexity. Video recordings were utilized to facilitate the observations. The results indicate that improved ergonomics features of the reach truck are not used as intended. The test subjects instead adopted postures that they were accustomed to when driving common reach trucks. The possible contributing factors to this posture regression are discussed. The procedure used in this study is recommended for the companies to determine the effectiveness and adoption of ergonomics solutions.     

Masochism and the female sexual role

The present study compared the contraceptive risk‐taking behavior (CRT) of 35 white and 28 black, unwed, sexually active, young (ages 14 to 18) female outpatients in mental health clinics with a record of chronic contraceptive rejection, with that of a matched group of clinically unlabelled (normal) subjects. The subjects' offered CRT explanations were categorized by independent judges and subjected to multifactor contingency analyses and post‐hoc contrast procedures. The results indicated no differences between the clinical and normal subjects, but within groups, clinically‐oriented explanations tended to be more frequent than political‐economic explanations among white subjects, while the reverse held true for black subjects. In addition, 90 college students were asked to state what they considered a rational CRT response, as well as what CRT response they would expect from a hypothetical unwed, sexually active, 16‐year‐old female contraceptive rejector described as either white, or black, or not mentioned by race. The results indicated that clinically‐oriented CRT explanations were expected for the white contraceptive rejector, political‐economic CRT explanations were expected and seen as rational for the black contraceptive rejector, and situa‐tional CRT explanations were attributed most often when the race of the contraceptive rejector was not mentioned. The results are discussed in terms of clinical, rational, and social‐psychological models in current CRT research.     

Nonprofit agency dependence on direct service and indirect support volunteers: An empirical investigation

Thirty agency directors or volunteer coordinators were interviewed regarding the human resource techniques they use to attract and retain two types of volunteers: direct service and indirect support. Agencies that depend on direct (point‐of‐service) volunteers are more likely to bring volunteers on board and use the performance feedback process to guide any needed improvements. Role playing and mentoring are particularly effective training techniques for these volunteers. Despite the critical function of point‐of‐service volunteers, more sophisticated recruitment and screening techniques were not used, contrary to expectations. Agencies that depend on indirect support volunteers use the recruitment process to screen out those who would not be successful volunteers and terminate them quickly for lack of confidentiality and reliability, particularly if they have had on‐the‐job training. Agencies hesitate to terminate direct service volunteers even for lack of ability and violations of policies and procedures. Finally, agencies used nonmonetary rewards with indirect support, but not direct service, volunteers. Implications of these findings and others are discussed.     

Planning for the worst: risk, uncertainty and the Olympic Games

Security for the Olympic Games has become undeniably visible in recent years. A certain degree of this visibility became unavoidable after the 1972 Munich Olympics when military personnel and hardware became standard elements of Olympic security. Yet, this visibility is qualitatively different today in that it is often deliberately fashioned for public consumption. This article argues that this expressive dimension of security at the Games provides a window into wider issues of how authorities 'show' that they can deliver on the promise of maximum security under conditions of radical uncertainty. The latter sections of this article examine three ways in which this promise is extended: the discursive work of managers of unease, the staging of highly stylized demonstration projects, and the fabrication of fantasy documents. We focus on how officials emphasize that they have contemplated and planned for all possible security threats, especially catastrophic threats and worst-case scenarios. Actually planning for these events is epistemologically and practically impossible, but saying and showing that authorities are 'planning for the worst' are discursive ways of transforming uncertainty into apparently manageable risks that are independent of the functional activities they describe. As such, our analysis provides insights into the much broader issue of how authorities sustain the appearance of maximum security in order to maintain rhetorical control over what are deemed to be highly uncertain and insecure situations. Such performances may paradoxically amplify uncertainty, thus recreating the conditions that foster the ongoing securitization of everyday life.     

The prevalence of problem and pathological gambling: A critical analysis

Prevalence of pathological gambling refers to the percentage of cases of pathological gambling occurring in the community at a given time. Prevalence studies conducted in different principalities throughout the world are reviewed, and it is found that none of them conforms to this definition of prevalence. The major error in all but the most recent surveys conducted is identified as the use of questions which ask whether gambling-related problems have ever occurred rather than whether they are currently occurring. This error will lead to an over-estimation of the prevalence of pathological gambling in society. The second major error identified in nearly all studies involves the accuracy of the screens being used to assess whether or not an individual is a pathological gambler. Concerns about the efficiency of the South Oaks Gambling Screen have not yet been satisfactorily resolved. None-the-less, the widespread use of the South Oaks Gambling Screen has made a valuable contribution to international comparisons of prevalence studies. Future work that explores the emerging relationship between levels of personal expenditure on gambling, types of gambling product and gambling-related problems are recommended.     

To err is social: Network prominence and its effects on self-estimation

In studying professional productivity, researchers find that actors do not always accurately perceive their productivity levels. Yet the literature does not provide an adequate explanation as to why these errors occur. This study examines the effects of network prominence on the self-estimation of productivity. I contend that network prominence is indicated through a variety of dimensions—visibility, connectedness, and professional affiliation—each of which has varying influence on the self-estimation process. This influence is best understood by exploring actors' internal vs. external attributions of prominence. Specifically, when actors attribute their prominence to internal efforts, they will tend to overestimate their productivity. Conversely, when actors attribute their network prominence to external circumstances, they will underestimate their productivity. The distinction between internal and external attributions of prominence relies, in large part, on the process of social comparison.     

A postmodern view of public relations: Sign and reality

This essay looks at postmodernisn as a critical theory to give some insight into modern public relations practice. A critical view of the signs and symbols of a culture allow one to see the allocation of power and the dominant ideology. Public relations practitioners can be called symbolmakers if one considers their work is largely word and image.The case here is the 1990 Hill and Knowlton client, Citizens for a Free Kuwait. It was the H & K involvement with this client that produced the testimony before Congress that led to the US commitment to war against Iraq.The media theory of Jean Baudrillard serves as the cultural studies paradigm in this essay. His postmodernist theory of simulacra, illustrates the kind of society in which the signs of the media become their own reality, and do not stand for anything. They generate reality for themselves; they become the reality. That is what happened in the H & K case since the testimony before Congress was never substantiated even though that testimony, initiated by the H & K public relations firm, became the catalyst for US involvement in the war. This article uses the postmodernist insight from Baudrillard to argue that the signs and symbols demanded by media are their own reality.Public relations practitioners can manipulate the image because they know the importance people place on signs and symbols in the culture. But, since media technology today gives us the facts as presented simply because they are presented and have little or no reference to truth, one could pose the serious question of whether the field of modern public relations practice must today and in the future be held to even greater accountability and tighter scrutiny.Mickey is Professor of Communication Studies at Bridgewater State College. He recently published a book on public relations theory called Sociodrama: An Interpretive Theory for the Practice of Public Relations.     

Role Salience, Role Embracement, and the Symbolic Self-Completion of Sorority Pledges

According to symbolic self-completion theory, people who feel status anxiety may engage in self-symbolization, resulting in the adoption of symbols used to bolster identity. Self-symbolization is an idealized condition that occurs when a person's status is legitimized by others who accept these symbols as valid status markers. While some studies support this perspective, others have identified blind spots and suggest revision. The current research suggests that role theory be incorporated with this perspective. In this article, the sorority experience is analyzed as a rite of passage in which high levels of role salience produce role embracement and symbolic self-completion. Symbolic self-completion theory is made more robust by analyzing the use of visual symbols as expressions of social roles.     

EMPLOYERS' USE OF JOB HISTORY DATA FOR MAKING HIRING DECISIONS:

Most research on occupational assignment has concentrated on characteristics of job seekers that presumable signal positive labor market information to employers. Foremost among these have been educational credentials and years and type of work experience. In many cases, though, employers seek indicators that can provide them with negative information about a candidate's prospects for successful job performance; they frequently construct screens that enable them to easily disqualify candidates. Case studies of six Chicago organizations identified six components of "job history data' used by many employers to screen out otherwise acceptable candidates: job hopping, absences from work, latenesses to work, periods of unfilled time, reasons for leaving past employers, and past wage rates. One or more of these items are often consequential in employer hiring decisions. The implications of these findings for a more detailed understanding of status attainment and job assignment are discussed, as well as how research in this area might proceed.     

Recognizing difference: in/visibility in the everyday life of individuals with facial limb absence

People who lack part(s) of their face have a visibly different appearance both due to their facial difference itself and the medical aids that they use to cover it (e.g. prostheses, bandages). In this article, we draw on interviews with affected individuals in order to investigate how visible difference features in their everyday experience. The visibility of their facial difference, we show, comes into play as they interact with various others in the contexts of their daily life. However, respondents’ visibility manifests in different ways, depending on whether they cover or uncover their facial difference. These different modes of visibility make for distinct ‘visibility experiences’, as participants meet others who notice – or fail to notice – their atypical appearance. By exploring these experiences, our article provides insights into the role of visibility in interviewees’ everyday life, and demonstrates how they actively negotiate their social recognition within encounters with various others.     

Determining optimal placement for pop-up messages: evaluation of a live trial of dynamic warning messages for electronic gaming machines

Dynamic warning messages are a harm minimization strategy aimed at preventing or reducing gambling-related problems by assisting individuals to make informed choices about their gambling. Laboratory studies have demonstrated the efficacy of dynamic warnings in facilitating responsible gambling. This article presents the results of a trial of the related effectiveness of dynamic warnings appearing either in the middle or on the periphery of electronic gaming machines (EGMs) screens in commercial gambling venues. Regular gamblers (n = 667) were surveyed to assess their recall of warning messages and the perceived impact of message placement on thoughts and behaviours. Messages appearing in the middle of screens were recalled to a greater extent, and respondents reported that these were more impactful and useful than messages on the periphery of screens. As one of the first trials of dynamic warning messages in operating EGM venues, the results provide important verification and validation of previous laboratory research. Results demonstrate that dynamic warning messages appearing in the middle of an EGM screen during play are likely to be a more effective harm minimization intervention than messages on the periphery of EGM screens.     

Soft cultures: the symbolism of cross-border organizing 1

It is not always true that the concept of culture implies a convergence on one meaning, one set of values, one pattern of behaviour. This paper develops the notion of soft culture. Cultures are soft in the sense that multiple renderings of reality are accepted and legitimized. Soft culture is studied in the context of cross-national technology development projects. Such projects are loosely structured communities, as organizational actors are separated in time and space. The paper demonstrates how symbols work among those actors. In addition to the traditional uses of symbolic categorizing, in soft culture the symbols also play an important role in attracting more networks to the action and licensing a wide variety of exploratory activities. These equivocal characteristics of symbols should be considered a strength in face of overwhelming uncertainty since they allow actors to construct multiple futures and pursue them.