Equal Learning Does Not Result in Equal Remembering: The Importance of Post‐Encoding Processes

Explanations of variability in long‐term recall typically appeal to encoding and/or retrieval processes. However, for well over a century, it has been apparent that for memory traces to be stored successfully, they must undergo a post‐encoding process of stabilization and integration. Variability in post‐encoding processes is thus a potential source of age‐related and individual variance in long‐term recall. We examined post‐encoding variability in each of two experiments. In each experiment, 20‐month‐old infants were exposed to novel three‐step sequences in each of three encoding conditions: watch only, imitate, and learn to criterion. They were tested for recall after 15 min (as a measure of the success of encoding) and either weeks (1, 2, or 3: Experiment 1) or days (1, 2, or 4: Experiment 2) later. In each experiment, differential relative levels of performance among the conditions were observed at the two tests. The results implicate post‐encoding processes are a source of variance in long‐term recall.     

Memory for Visual-Spoken Language in Children and Adults

Two experiments examined how developmental changes in processing speed, reliance on visual articulatory cues, memory retrieval, and the ability to interpret representational gestures influence memory for spoken language presented with a view of the speaker (visual-spoken language). Experiment 1 compared 16 children (M = 9.5 yrs.) and 16 young adults, using an immediate recall procedure. Experiment 2 replicated the methods with new speakers, stimuli, and participants. Results showed that both children's and adults' memory for sentences was aided by the presence of visual articulatory information and gestures. Children's slower processing speeds did not adversely affect their ability to process visual-spoken language. However, children's ability to retrieve the words from memory was poorer than adults'. Children's memory was also more influenced by representational gestures that appeared along with predicate terms than by gestures that co-occurred with nouns.     

Representational Gesture,Pointing Gesture,and Memory Recall of Preschool Children

This study investigated the effects of two different types of hand gestures on memory recall of preschool children. Experiment 1 found that children who were instructed to use representational gestures while retelling an unfamiliar story retrieved more information about the story than children who were asked to hold their hands still. In addition, children who engaged in some forms of bodily movements other than hand gestures also recalled better. Experiment 2 showed that a simpler and more basic form of gesture, the pointing gesture, had a similar effect on recollecting and retelling the details of a story. The findings provide evidence for the beneficial effects of hand gestures, both representational gestures and pointing gestures, on cognitive processes such as memory retrieval and verbal communication for preschool aged children.     

Newborns' Memory Processes: A Study on the Effects of Retroactive Interference and Repetition Priming

Newborns' memory abilities have been shown in a number of studies. Yet little is known about whether many of the factors that are known to affect encoding, storage, and retrieval in older children and adults are also integral to memory processes at birth. Here we tested for the presence at birth of the retroactive interference and repetition priming effects using the visual paired comparison paradigm. Newborns' memory performance on a visual recognition task was prevented by the interposition of a distractor stimulus between the habituation and the test phase (retroactive interference, Experiment 1). However, forgetting was offset by further brief exposure to the familiar stimulus (repetition priming, Experiments 2 and 3).     

Age and subcultural differences on personal and general beliefs about memory

This study examined age and cultural differences on both personal and general beliefs about memory by comparing three age groups within two subcultures belonging to the same country: Milanese and Sardinian. Two innovative instruments on general and personal beliefs with graphic-rating-scale format (General Beliefs about Memory Instrument and Personal Beliefs about Memory Instrument) and a memory task (recall of 40 words) were administrated to participants. Sardinians held more positive attitudes about the effects of aging on memory reporting a later onset of declining memory ability and control over memory across the life span. They were also more optimistic in rating their global memory efficacy, control, and retrospective change. The two subcultural groups differed in terms of memory performance, with Sardinian individuals outperforming the Milanese. Findings are discussed in relation to the view of aging in different subcultural contexts.     

Inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in memory-based choices

Abstract

This study examines the role of inhibitory processes in memory-based choices. In two experiments, the effects of the competitive nature of memory retrieval as well as the valence of the to-be-retrieved items on a recall and a choice task are examined by using the retrieval practice paradigm. The results show a parallel pattern for both tasks. Specifically, neither forgetting nor choice bias were found in the non-competitive retrieval condition, for both positive and negative information. Nevertheless, a retrieval-induced forgetting and a choice bias effect were found in the competitive retrieval condition, although only for positive information. Interestingly, this negativity effect disappeared when positive information was excluded from to-be-learned material. These findings suggest the way in which the lasting consequences of inhibition affect choice processes.     

The Effect of Learning Experiences and Context on Infant Imitation and Generalization

Over the first years of life, infants gradually develop the ability to retrieve their memories across cue and contextual changes. Whereas maturational factors drive some of these developments in memory ability, experiences occurring within the learning event may also impact infants' ability to retrieve memories in new situations. In 2 experiments we examined whether it was possible to facilitate 12‐month‐old infants' generalization of learning in the deferred imitation paradigm by varying experiences before or during the demonstration session, or during the retention interval. In Experiment 1, altering the length, timing, or variability of training had no impact on generalization; infants showed a low, but consistent level of memory retrieval. In Experiment 2, infants who experienced a unique context for encoding and retrieval exhibited generalization; infants who experienced the context prior to the demonstration session, or during the retention interval, did not. Specificity is a robust feature of infant memory and is not substantially altered by encoding experiences in an observational learning paradigm. Previous history with a learning environment can, however, impact the flexibility of memory retrieval.     

Ease of retrieval as a source of information in social change judgments

Abstract

Several authors have proposed two alternative sources of information in memory based judgments: the contents retrieved from memory and the ease with which the retrieval process is perceived. Schwarz and colleagues have made it clear that, in certain circumstances, people base their judgments on the subjective experience of ease with which the information is retrieved. The present work studies the extent to which the use of this heuristic could be generalized to judgments of social change (Study 1) and some of the factors that can affect the ability to diagnose the ease of retrieval as a source of information (Study 2). The results obtained confirm the ability to generalize this heuristic to judgments of social change and to establish some conditions that affect the diagnostic- city of this source of information.     

A contingent approach to strategy and tactics in formative and summative evaluations

A contingent approach to strategic and tactical choices in formative and summative evaluations is presented. Choices regarding evaluation phases and tactics were found to be dependent on evaluation goals (e.g., whether the evaluation has a formative or summative purpose) and contextual variables. A simulation was designed to pool the judgments of evaluators and users of evaluations to see how they felt evaluation strategy and tactics should change as the situation changes so as to increase the likelihood of evaluation success. Eight panels were constructed to examine eight different situations. The next step in this research is to determine whether following the pooled judgments does lead to greater evaluation success.     

Retrieval Protracts Deferred Imitation by 6‐Month‐Olds

Past research using a deferred imitation task has shown that 6‐month‐olds remember a 3‐part action sequence for only 1 day. The concept of a time window suggests that there is a limited period within which additional information can be integrated with a prior memory. Its width tracks the forgetting function of the memory. This study asked if retrieving the memory of the modeled actions at the end of the time window protracts its retention, if the type of retrieval (active or passive) differentially influences retention, and if the retrieval delay influences its specificity. In Experiment 1, 6‐month‐olds either imitated the modeled actions (active retrieval group) or merely watched them modeled again (passive retrieval group) 1 day after the original demonstration. Both groups showed deferred imitation after 10 days. In Experiment 2, 6‐month‐olds who repeatedly retrieved the memory at or near the end of the time window deferred imitation for 2.5 months. In Experiment 3,6‐month‐olds spontaneously generalized imitation late in the time window after 1 prior retrieval, whether it was active or passive. These studies reveal that the retention benefit of multiple retrievals late in the time window is huge. Because most retrievals are undoubtedly latent, the contribution of repeated events to the growth of the knowledge base early in infancy has been greatly underestimated.     

Strategies to Address Clinical Bias in the Child Custody Evaluation Process

ABSTRACT

Researchers have explored the existence and effects of bias on decision making for decades. Studies indicate that mental health professionals are not immune from unintentional bias in judgments, including those in forensic situations. Custody evaluators should be aware of the pitfalls that exist in clinical decision-making as well as strategies to address them. This article connects existing insights from therapeutic and forensic literature to the field of custody evaluations. An overview of clinical bias in custody evaluation is offered to familiarize practitioners with the range of possible problems. Examples, such as biases inherent in the scientific process and the clinical relationship, are followed with specific recommendations regarding how to address issues of clinical bias during evaluation. Insights are offered for judges and attorneys to improve the quality of reports they receive.     

Immediate Memory for Mismatched Speech and Representational Gesture Across Development

Two experiments examined how 7- and 8-year-old children, 9- and 10-year-old children, and adults process mismatched, task-related speech and gesture differently as a function of development. Participants watched videotapes of children speaking and gesturing about the concept of conservation. Using a recognition paradigm, we assessed immediate memory for information conveyed in mismatched speech and gesture. In Experiment 1, we used recognition of verbal statements to probe participants' memory, whereas in Experiment 2, we used recognition of gestural statements to probe memory. When probed with verbal statements in Experiment 1, 9- and 10-year-old children failed to retrieve gestured information. When probed with gestural statements in Experiment 2, 9- and 10-year-old children failed to retrieve verbal information. In contrast, the younger children and adults showed retrieval of both verbal and gestural information across both recognition methods in Experiments 1 and 2. These results suggest a U-shaped function with the 9- and 10-year-old children showing a limitation in the ability to process contradictory messages simultaneously conveyed in two modalities. Implications for identifying a transitional period in the development of representational skills are discussed.     

Does consulting with others affect answerability judgments of difficult questions?

People’s judgments of the answerability of questions relating to how things are in the world can have important consequences for society and people’s lives. Thirty-one individuals and 30 pairs made answerability judgments of 20 general knowledge questions, many with less known, or unknown, answers. Four questions had high expected consensus regarding their answerability (consensus questions) and the rest had less expected consensus with respect to their answerability (non-consensus questions). The pairs showed two polarization effects: pairs gave higher answerability ratings for questions with answerability ratings over 80% and lower ratings than individuals for questions with the lower answerability ratings. Stronger consensus-seeking tendencies and a more active memory environment in the pairs may have contributed to these results.     

The unique effects of environmental strategies in health promotion campaigns: a review

Various strategies are used as tools in health promotion campaigns to increase health-related outcomes among target populations. Evaluations of these campaigns examine effects on changing people's knowledge, attitudes, and/or behaviors. Most evaluations examine the combined impact of multiple strategies. Less is known about the unique effects of particular strategies. To address this gap, we used highly systematic methods to identify and review scientifically rigorous evaluations of 18 campaigns that examined the unique effects of three sets of intervention strategies (entertainment education, law enforcement, and mass media) on changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practice with regard to various health behaviors. Results showed differences in evaluation processes based on the type of strategy used to promote campaign messages. For instance, evaluations of mass-media based campaigns were more likely to examine changes in knowledge, relative to evaluations of campaigns that used law enforcement strategies. In addition, campaign effects varied by particular strategies. Mass media-based campaigns were more likely to affect knowledge, relative to behaviors. Law enforcement and entertainment education-based campaigns showed positive effects on behaviors. The implications for planning and evaluating health promotion campaigns are described.     

"MY WIFE KNOWS BEST" A COMPARISON OF EVENT DATING ACCURACY BETWEEN THE WIFE, THE HUSBAND, THE COUPLE, AND THE BELGIUM POPULATION REGISTER

The problem of memory bias in retrospective data has been studiedfor short-term retrospective recall and for frequently occurringevents, but little has been written on how questionnaire designcan improve memory of personal events over a very long retrospectivetime period. This study offers a new approach to the problemby using a sample survey conducted in Belgium that allows thecomparison of recall accuracy not only between the husband andthe wife but also the couple together through the use of NationalPopulation Register data. The sample data support findings fromcertain psychological experiments that respondents' errors inevent dating are generally in years, and not in months, andfurthermore that this pattern is not general and is relatedto the event itself. Subsequently, the year of the birth ofa child, which has an annual significance, is generally recalledaccurately; the year of a change of residence, however, is oftenerroneous. Results of the log-linear models show that the oddsof recalling an incorrect year of a move are significantly decreasedif an event with annual significance occurred around the sametime period. Design of retrospective questionnaires should takeinto account the fact that time units are not recalled equallyfor differing autobiographical events, and that dating accuracycould be improved through use of parallel event questioning.Correlations between dating errors and omissions, and the possibilityof a "chain of errors" in responses, are also examined.     

The reliability of recall measurement in assessing migrant reintegration: Evidence from Ethiopia,Somalia, and Sudan

This article asks whether and under what conditions the use of retrospective or “recall” measurement is reliable. Migration researchers are often forced to retrospectively measure baselines when evaluating the impact of interventions due to the transitory nature of migration, developing country contexts, and hastily assembled policy programmes, a situation exacerbated by Covid-19. This article first theoretically considers the extent to which this approach is reliable and likely to result in biased estimates, as well as its broader advantages, disadvantages, and recommendations for best practice. It then considers the case of the “IMPACT” evaluation of the EU-IOM Joint Initiative for Migrant Protection and Reintegration in which 1774 Ethiopian, Somalia, and Sudanese migrant returnees in 2021 were assessed on a range of reintegration measures, 1095 of whom were measured retrospectively. Regression analyses demonstrate that those measured retrospectively give more negative scores on several “Reintegration Sustainability Scores” in line with some theoretical expectations but contrary to others. However, this—mostly non-statistically significant—effect is largely diminished when the small minority who report finding it difficult to remember the baseline period are removed—suggesting that any retrospective measurement effect results from memory bias rather than, for example, consistency bias. No evidence is found to support several theoretically derived interaction effects. Determinants of self-reported memory are demonstrated and recommendations for usage of retrospective measurement are provided, based on these findings.     

Evaluations of the special supplemental program for Women,infants, and children's (WIC's) effectiveness

The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) analyzed the evaluations of the Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) to determine whether they support assertions that have been made about the program's positive effects for five outcomes. Insufficient evidence was found for making any general or conclusive judgments about WIC's effectiveness overall, but in a limited way, the information does indicate the likelihood that WIC has positive effects in some areas. GAO also assessed problems in the state of evaluation efforts. That the program evaluations do not reveal whether WIC is having the effect intended by the legislation underscores the need to design and implement better studies. Generally speaking, GAO believes that if the lessons learned from past efforts are heeded, it should be possible to produce information on the overall effectiveness of WIC.     

Remembering: forget about forgetting and train your brain instead

As people age, they often become increasingly concerned about their inability to remember names and faces or recall specific words. As their memory seems to decline, they worry about developing Alzheimer's disease. Yet, new research suggests that for most aging adults, failing to remember is because of an overload of information and difficulty in trying to sort through a cluttered "database." Brain-training programs based on evolving research, as well as increased opportunities to reflect on healthy aging experiences, offer important possibilities for working with clients concerned about memory problems.     

An application of attribution and equity theories to tax evasion behavior

Traditional economic theory often has been utilized in an attempt to explain tax evasion behavior. Although economic consequences are important factors in the understanding of tax evasion behavior, they alone do not appear adequate to describe and predict the phenomenon. The results of two experiments which apply two social psychological theories, attribution theory and equity theory, to tax evasion judgments are reported. In the first experiment, the effects of personal need and degree of societal consensus were investigated. Both variables significantly affected recommended penalty judgments. In the second experiment, the effects of societal need and distinctiveness were studied. Neither societal need nor distinctiveness affected recommended penalty judgments. However, a significant interaction effect was found concerning subjects' behavioral intentions to evade. The present research suggests that both attribution theory and equity theory may be helpful in formulating hypotheses and enhancing our understanding of tax evasion behavior.