Child protection and out-of-home placement experiences of preschool children born to mothers enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment during pregnancy

Children born to opiate-dependent women engaged in methadone maintenance treatment are at high risk of child welfare concern. However, few studies have examined the early child protection service (CPS) contacts of this group or the risk factors that place some but not other mother–infant dyads at increased risk of serious concern resulting in the removal of the child from the family home. As part of a prospective longitudinal study based in New Zealand, 73 women enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment during pregnancy and 54 non-methadone maintained comparison mothers were recruited during pregnancy and interviewed close to delivery, 18-months and 4.5-years. At each follow-up evaluation, detailed life history methods were used to describe children's family circumstances and all CPS contacts. By 4.5-years postdelivery, methadone maintained mothers were ten-times more likely to have been investigated by child protection services than comparison mothers (59% v. 6%, p < .001). Of these contacts, almost half (44%) resulted in the removal of the child from the family home compared to no comparison children (p < .001). These children were most frequently placed before age 1, with an average of 1–2 caregiver changes (range: 0–7). In addition to maternal methadone maintenance treatment during pregnancy (p < .001), significant independent predictors of child out-of-home placement included maternal depression (p = .01), maternal history of child custody loss (p = .02), and to some extent, high levels of family socioeconomic adversity (p = .06). Findings highlight the complex psychosocial needs of this high-risk group, as well as the need for careful monitoring and parenting support following hospital discharge.     

Protective factors among families with children at risk of maltreatment: Follow up to early school years

The purpose of this study is to explore both risk and protective factors of child maltreatment among at risk elementary school children. This study used data from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN), following a cohort of 405 children from age 4 to age 8. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that children attending preschool irregularly (OR = 2.98; 95% CI: 1.08-8.26), families with a high level of life events (OR = 2.68; 95% CI: 1.12-6.41), and mothers with a history of childhood maltreatment (OR = 2.26; 95% CI: 1.07-4.76) were more likely to have a child maltreatment report. In contrast, mothers who were married (OR = 0.19; 95% CI: 0.06-0.64), mothers who attained 12 or more years of education (OR = 0.09; 95% CI: 0.02-0.34), and family with high level of social support (OR = 0.29; 95% CI: 0.11-0.80) were less likely to have a child maltreatment report. For mothers who had not graduated from high school, adequate social support reduced the risk of child maltreatment by a factor of two. The provision of adequate social support should be incorporated into child maltreatment prevention programs, particularly those targeting at risk families.     

Risk factors and services for child maltreatment among infants and young children

Objectives

Child maltreatment (CM) causes injury in large numbers of U.S. children. This study uses a large, multi-state dataset of child protective services reports for infants and young children under five years of age to examine risk factors and the effects of services in confirmed maltreatment investigations and recurrence over five years.

Methods

The Child Files of the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) for 2003-2007 were used to study confirmed CM reports to child protective services (CPS) using regression models and survival analysis among a cohort of children first reported during 2003.

Results

There were 1.2 million confirmed maltreatment reports to state child protective services agencies in 22 states during 2003-2007 in NCANDS, including 177,568 infants and young children under five years. 19.3% had a second confirmed CM report within 5 years. White race, inadequate housing and receiving public assistance were associated with significantly increased risk of CM recurrence. Infants and young children received more services and had less recurrence than did older children.

Conclusions

Infants and young children have different risk factors and receive different services than do older children in the CPS system. We need additional research to further assess and better target services for the special needs of infants, young children and their families if we are to protect them and reduce future child maltreatment.     

Evaluation of a group-based social skills training for children with problem behavior

This study evaluated a group-based training program in social skills targeting reduction of problem behaviors in N = 161 children between 7 and 13 years of age. The effects of the intervention were tested in a quasi-experimental study, with a follow-up assessment 12 months after an optional continuation camp. At the post-test, both the experimental and control group showed less social problems and internalizing problems, whereas only the experimental group showed a small and positive change in social anxiety. After a 12 month follow-up, a subsample of the experimental group (children who followed a continuation camp) showed large positive changes for all outcome measures, except for externalizing problems, showing a small effect.     

It takes a team: Improving placement stability among children and youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder in care in Canada

Concerted efforts have been devoted to improving placement stability for children in care. These efforts have been driven by evidence of negative outcomes for foster children who experience frequent placement changes. Of particular concern are significantly higher rates of placement disruptions among children in care who experience Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). This mixed methods study examines the impact of enhanced child welfare practice interventions on placement stability for 182 children in care who experience FASD. A quasi-experimental matched comparison group design was employed, where rates of placement change were compared between children in the Project Regions who received enhanced practice standards to those in the Comparison Regions who did not. The sample included 182 participants including 98 children and youth in care from the Project Region and 84 cases from the Comparison Region. The Project Regions reported considerably lower placement changes (M = .33) than the Comparison Region (M = .98). Logistic regression analysis revealed that worker contact was found to be predictive of placement stability. Specifically, as worker contact increased, the likelihood of placement change decreased [B = − .28, W (5.35, p = .02)]. In keeping with the adage that it takes a village to raise a child, one could add for children affected by FASD, that it takes a dedicated team to promote placement stability and better life trajectories.     

Is child protective services effective?

A number of studies have concluded that there is little observable connection between CPS involvement and improved outcomes for children and families. Evidence of CPS effectiveness is complicated by the presence of selection bias and difficulty controlling for confounding. To understand outcomes by group and intervention effects, comparable groups are necessary and difficult to ascertain using CPS administrative case record data. This study examines the causal effect of CPS involvement on the likelihood of future maltreatment using administrative case management records from July 1, 2010 and June 30, 2011. The current study accounts for differences in pre-existing condition between groups to establish sound estimates of CPS involvement effects. Logistic regression models were used to examine the difference in subsequent substantiated investigation between families with comparable risk and differing service recommendation (p = 0.83), recurrence among families with comparable risk, the same service recommendation that did or did not receive services (p = 0.83). Hazard models were used to explore risk of substantiated investigation among families with comparable risk and differing service recommendation (p = 0.77). Results indicate receipt of CPS services had no observable effect on recurrence of maltreatment overall and among families with similar levels of risk of recurrence. Further inquiry into worker attributes, decision-making, types of and quality of services offered to families could help explain the effective, or ineffectiveness, or services.     

Prevention of child maltreatment in high-risk rural families: A randomized clinical trial with child welfare outcomes

Few studies have specifically examined prevention of child maltreatment among higher-risk populations in rural communities. The overarching goal of this study was to conduct a randomized clinical trial of SafeCare augmented for rural high-risk population (SC+) compared to standard home-based mental health services (SAU) to examine reductions in future child maltreatment reports, as well as risk factors and factors proximal to child maltreatment. Parents (N = 105) of young children (5 years or less) who had identifiable risk of depression, intimate partner violence, or substance abuse were randomized to SC+ or SAU. Participants randomized to SC+ were more likely to enroll (83% vs. 35% for SAU) and remain in services (35 h vs. 8 h for SAU). SC+ (for participants who successfully completed services) may have had limited impact on child welfare reports during service provision. Further, SC+ had fewer child welfare reports related to DV than SAU. Parent self-reports of parenting behaviors, risk factors, and protective factors did not demonstrate significant sustained program impact. Limitations include power constraints related to sample size. Promising next steps entail future trials with larger sample sizes examining service compliance and further augmentation of SafeCare to bolster service impact and address risk and protective factors.     

Early truancy intervention: Results of an evaluation using a regression discontinuity design

This study evaluates the effectiveness of a truancy reduction program. A Regression Discontinuity design was used to assess attendance outcomes for 700 children. Approximately half received a case management intervention, while the other half received a warning letter, only. Truancy rates in the control group remained at the pre-intervention levels, while truancy in the treatment group significantly declined (p < .01). Successful case closure was associated with a reduction in truancy (p < .001). The intervention was less effective with non-White children and with those who had been previously retained. Findings substantiate continued support for the intervention; however, additional resources should include culturally-responsive treatment approaches and academic enrichment programs.     

Cultural diversity competencies in child and youth care services in Portugal: Development of two measures and a brief training program

Few researchers have examined the training of child care workers in cultural diversity competencies, despite the growing number of ethnic minority children and youth in residential care. The present paper reports two studies. In study 1, we aimed to adapt and develop two measures of cultural diversity competencies—a self-report questionnaire and an objective measure based on a case vignette (n = 51). In study 2, we proposed a brief training program. A quasi-experimental design (n = 30) was used, with cultural competencies being evaluated before and after the training. Results revealed that (1) child care workers tended to over-estimate their self-perceived competence and that (2) the experimental group was more capable of including cultural elements in their definition of strategies and relational aspects of intervention after a brief training than the group that received no training (control). Implications of this study are discussed for further development of cultural diversity competencies in professionals working in residential child care.     

Friends with benefits or “friends” with deficits? The meaning and contexts of uncommitted sexual relationships among Mexican American and European American adolescents

Using focus groups, this study sought to understand and compare how Mexican American (n = 41, M = 16.0 years old, SD = .96) and European American (n = 34, M = 16.1 years old, SD = .64) youths conceptualize and experience “friends with benefits” relationships (FWBRs). Contrary to the implied nature of friendship, partners did not show caring and viewed FWBRs as a means to meet sexual needs. The “benefits” of this arrangement included guilt-free pleasure, little responsibility, the freedom to date others, or to remain available for a more desirable partner. The inherent deficits of FWBRs, on the other hand, included the potential pitfall of getting emotionally attached. Despite the recognized deficits, European American and Mexican American girls both desired and participated in FWBRs. However, Mexican American girls described more committed “going-out” relationships as ideal, which left them vulnerable to mismatched expectations and emotional upset in FWBRs. Findings outline the socio-emotional contexts of adolescent involvement in FWBRs, as well as underscore the potential for conflicting desires. Recommendations for healthy relationship and sexual health programs are discussed.     

Recollections of harsh discipline in childhood and depressive feelings in adulthood: The roles of culture and gender

The present study examined the roles of culture and gender in the association between recollections of harsh discipline experienced during childhood and levels of depressive feelings in early adulthood. A sample of Jewish (n = 250) and Arab (n = 115) university students reported regarding exposure to corporal punishment and emotional aggression from each parent during childhood, and about current depressive feelings. Consistent with predictions, both culture and gender moderated the links between corporal punishment (used by either mother or father) and depression. Arab males, for whom exposure to corporal punishment might be more culturally normative, showed a different pattern than both Arab females and Jewish respondents. Moreover, culture moderated the association between emotional aggression from fathers (but not mothers) and depression. The discussion focuses on the importance of examining the effects of gender (of child and parent) in conjunction with culture, and on the complex role of cultural normativeness.     

Foster children placed with or separated from siblings: Outcomes based on a national sample

This study examines a range of outcomes for children in foster care who have siblings, using a large, national U.S. database. Three types of sibling placements are defined: split (child has no siblings in the home), splintered (at least one sibling in the home), and together (all siblings in the home). The study analyzes records (n = 1701) from the National Study of Child and Adolescent Wellbeing, including Child Protective Services (CPS) and Long-term Foster Care (LTFC) samples. It contributes to the literature in its inclusive definition of siblings, use of three categories for sibling placement status, and use of outcome measures that include the perceptions of foster children. The study reports limited significant findings. Neither foster parents' nor youths' reports of behavioral problems differ by sibling placement status. As rated by teachers, academic performance in the group placed together exceeds that in both of the other groups. For children in kinship homes, teachers also reported less problematic internalizing and externalizing behavior for the splintered and together groups than for the split group. Children in the splintered group also responded more favorably than those in the split group to questions of closeness to the primary caregiver and liking the people in the foster family.     

Is program structure related to stigma and community acceptance of justice-involved adolescents?

Objective

The aim of the study is to examine the impact of diversion program characteristics on social stigma of delinquent adolescents in Jordan.

Method

A street survey of adults was conducted in Amman, Jordan. Respondents were randomly assigned to read one of four vignettes involving a delinquent adolescent who participated successfully in one of four types of juvenile justice interventions: detention center placement; diversion with counseling; diversion with counseling plus victim apology and restitution; and diversion with counseling plus family-based apology and restitution. Respondents reported their willingness to accept the adolescent as a member of their child's school, as a friend of their child, as a spouse for their child, and as a future employee. Seventy seven percent of adults approached participated (N = 137).

Results

Respondents reported greater willingness to accept the adolescent when he participated in any of the three diversion programs compared to the detention center condition (β = .80, p < .05). However, there were no differences among the diversion program types (i.e., counseling only, counseling plus individual restorative justice, counseling plus tribal restorative justice) in acceptance levels. Regardless of intervention type, the perception that the adolescent had ‘learned his lesson’ was associated with greater acceptance and with heightened expectations of future success.

Conclusion

Intervention characteristics can influence public stigma in the Middle East. For justice involved youths, interventions that increase perceptions that youth have learned their lesson is a crucial ingredient to stigma reduction efforts. Social work interventions with delinquent adolescents and their families need to incorporate stigma management strategies that convey lesson-learning as a key intervention outcome.     

Communicating during crisis: Use of blogs as a relationship management tool

Using a post-test only experimental design with control group, this study investigated the impact of blogs on relationship management during a crisis. Participants (N = 109) were exposed to a personal blog (n = 45), organizational blog (n = 46), or control (n = 18). Results indicate blogs impact the perception of the level of crisis an organization experiences. Additionally, relationships created through blogs impact the perception of crisis. Use and credibility were also investigated.     

Stability and sequence of center-based and family childcare: Links with low-income children's school readiness

The school readiness of a large sample (n = 2682) of ethnically and linguistically diverse, low-income children was examined as a function of whether children remained in family childcare (FCC) or center-based care (CBC) throughout their three and four-year-old preschool years, or whether they switched to the other type of childcare or to a public school pre-K program at age four. Children's pre-academic development (cognition, fine motor, and language) was assessed with the Learning Accomplishment Profile — Diagnostic (LAP-D), and teachers and parents rated children's social skills and behavior concerns with the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA) at three time points over two years. All children, regardless of childcare sequence, demonstrated some gains in school readiness. However, children receiving stable CBC over the two years made moderate gains in pre-academic skills and teacher-reported social skills. Children in stable FCC exhibited some gains in fine motor, language, and teacher reported-social skills but lost ground relative to national norms in cognitive skills. Children who switched between CBC and FCC did not show as much pre-academic growth (with those who switched to FCC gaining the least); however, children who switched from CBC to FCC did demonstrate strong teacher-reported social skills. Children who switched to public school pre-K programs at age four showed the strongest school readiness and were the only group to score above national averages in language and cognition.     

The role of parental work schedule in CPS involvement

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 2904), we investigated whether maternal work schedules were associated with Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement and child maltreatment indicators during the first five years of a child's life. We further examined if this association could be explained by demographic characteristics, child care arrangements, maternal health and social supports, economic and hardship characteristics, and parenting practices. Finally, we examined if this association differed by context (i.e., maternal marital status, maternal education, and family income-to-needs ratio). Our regression results indicate significant associations between maternal shift work and mother-reported CPS involvement and mother-reported psychological aggression behaviors. Economic and hardship characteristics explained some of the significant association between maternal shift work and CPS involvement. Economic and hardship characteristics and parenting practices also explained some of the significant association between maternal shift work and psychological aggression behaviors. The obtained significant associations were more pronounced for mothers who were not married, who were high school graduates, and whose family income was either below or near poverty. We discuss the broader social factors associated with employment demands and childcare arrangements.     

Research in play therapy: A 10-year review in Taiwan

This study represented a 10-year review of 86 master's theses and doctoral dissertations on play therapy that had been conducted in Taiwan from 2002 to 2011. Particular attention was directed to the intention of research, the traits of participants, the characteristics of play therapy, and the research methods. Results indicated that the most frequently studied population was children and adolescents (54.6%), followed by play therapists (25.6%), parents/care-givers of children (16.3%), and teachers of children (1.2%). Findings revealed the types of research were qualitative (n = 59; 68.6%), quantitative (n = 7; 8.1%), and mixed methods (n = 20; 23.3%). Results are discussed concerning implications for counselor educators and further research on play therapy.     

The transition from in-home services to out-of-home care: A Danish register-based study

Objective

This register-based study describes the transition from in home-based care to placements in out-of-home care. It also describes whether children who enter care directly differ from children who enter care after episodes of in home-based care.

Method

The study includes all children who entered the child protection system of a larger regional social service system in Denmark from 1993 to 2006 (N = 9961). Graphs of cumulative incidences were used to describe transitions into out-of-home care within two years after in home-based care started. Cox regression models are used to estimate the impacts of child and parental characteristics. In addition, Chi² tests are used to identify differences between children who enter care directly and children who receive in home-based care.

Results

Results indicate that the majority of children do not enter out-of-home care but that risks differ among age groups. Covariates did not predict transitions into out-of-home care for those who entered in-home care after becoming teenagers. Especially for those who entered in-home care before entering their teens, the psychiatric histories of the mothers and the children predicted the transitions into out-of-home care. Immigration background was a protective factor for those who entered in-home care as pre-scholars. Depending on the age group, low birth weight, children's fathers' and mothers' psychiatric histories, and single parentship were all characteristics more likely to be associated with children who entered care directly. Children who entered care directly differed from children who entered care within two years after an in home-based service had been initiated on covariates that described psychiatric history.     

Atheistic, agnostic, and religious older adults on well-being and coping behaviors

Previous research reports relationships between religion and both well-being and positive coping, especially among the older adult age group. However, researchers have failed to consider the non-religious when comparing groups categorized by religious belief, ignoring possible differences between those with a belief and the non-religious, atheists, and agnostics. To explore possible differences, we gathered data from a sample of 134 religious and non-religious older adults (55 years old plus) who completed an online questionnaire assessing relationships between religiosity and well-being, social support, locus of control, and meaning in life. Belief groups, including atheists, agnostics, and those high and low on religious beliefs, were compared on coping behaviors. The religious groups did not significantly differ from atheists and agnostics on well-being, satisfaction with social support, or locus of control; however, the high religiosity group did endorse higher levels of presence of meaning in life than the atheists and a greater number of social supports compared to the non-religious groups. The groups significantly differed on their use of religious coping (p < .05), and differences approached significance on the groups utilization of humor and substances as coping mechanisms (p = .07). The religious groups endorsed religious-oriented coping at significantly greater rates, whereas the atheists endorsed a greater use of substances to cope than the other three groups. Additionally, atheists endorsed humor for coping more so than their low religiosity counterparts.