Child protection: a new approach in South Australia

This paper argues the case for an integrated approach to child protection services, embracing children's safety, risk and needs and incorporating formal assessment instruments. It then provides a brief overview of the new child protection system in South Australia. The steady rise in child abuse/neglect reports raises questions about how best to provide child protection services. Analysis of South Australian data suggests that much of the rise can be attributed to an increase in reports of neglect and emotional abuse and an increase in re‐notifications. This in turn raises questions about the traditional investigative approach. In 1995 Messages from Research advocated that agencies re‐focus on children's needs and concentrate less on investigations into safety and risk. The critical question is how to distinguish families requiring investigation from those needing support. The latest research suggests that such decision‐making in child protection is generally inconsistent and unreliable. This paper argues that statutory agencies should use formal assessment tools to determine the level and nature of their interventions. These arguments have been critical in the development of the new child protection model in SA, which relies on a centralized intake, differential response to reports and the structured decision‐making system. Initial evaluation of the new model indicates improvements in consistency of initial screening and responses to children in danger. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improving mental health assessments in child protection through audit

Existing agency records, together with questionnaires completed by social services referrers and mental health providers, were used to identify problems in current arrangements for obtaining specialist mental health assessments in child protection cases. Standards were set and implemented through a multi‐agency steering group. The practice of referrers and providers was then reaudited. Sixty‐nine social workers, six mental health specialists and 27 child protection initial case conferences (involving 31 children) were involved in the reaudit over a 4‐month period. Initially, main problems concerned communications, unclear referral and access arrangements, waiting times and disagreements over prioritization. Standards concerned consultation and decision‐making arrangements within the child mental health service, the format of referral and reply letters, the sharing of information and the attendance of mental health professionals at child protection case conferences. There appeared to be improvements in all these areas at reaudit. In conclusion, some shared views of problems, additional support funding and the audit process appear to have helped to improve inter‐agency collaboration and develop more efficient referral and care arrangements. There is a need to maintain and further develop this work, and audit would again be a useful means. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotional harm and neglect: the legal response

This paper reports on a study of the extent to which child protection applications brought to the Melbourne Children's Court in Victoria, Australia, were based on emotional/psychological harm or neglect of a child and what factors were presented as evidence of harm or neglect. The study examined records of 208 court‐ordered pre‐trial conferences heard in the court between February and July 2002. What was found was that, although cases involving emotional abuse have increased in terms of child protection applications, they remain cases that are difficult to decide. While in 1998/9 emotional harm was a ground in 25.7% of child protection matters completed in the Family Division of the Children's Court of Victoria, legal decision‐makers are reluctant to make a finding of child abuse in these cases because there is less accuracy in the determination of emotional harm and negligible legal criteria available to guide decision‐making. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Moderating the Effects of Childhood Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence: The Roles of Parenting Characteristics and Adolescent Peer Support

We investigate parenting characteristics and adolescent peer support as potential moderators of the effects of childhood exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) on adolescent outcomes. Lehigh Longitudinal Study (N=416) data include parent and adolescent reports of childhood IPV exposure. Exposure to IPV predicted nearly all adverse outcomes examined; however, after accounting for co‐occurring child abuse and early child behavior problems, IPV predicted only 1 outcome. Several moderator effects were identified. Parental “acceptance” of the child moderated the effects of IPV exposure on the likelihood of teenage pregnancy and running away from home. Both peer communication and peer trust moderated the relationship between exposure to IPV and depression and running from home. Peer communication also moderated the effects of IPV exposure on high school dropout. Interventions that influence parenting practices and strengthen peer support for youth exposed to IPV may increase protection and decrease risk of several tested outcomes.     

Assessment in a specialist referred family centre: outcomes for children

Relatively little is known about the outcomes of assessment as an information gathering mechanism as well as a therapeutic encounter in which service users explore and share their problems. Assessment in child welfare is now a highly topical issue given the new assessment framework recently introduced to England and which is currently a matter of consultation in Wales. In contributing to a long running debate over ‘what works’ in child protection assessment and intervention, a United Kingdom national voluntary child care agency commissioned the authors to undertake a three year outcomes study of a child and family assessment service provided by their specialist referred family centre in South Wales. The paper sets out selected findings that reveal an assessment regimen which encouraged partnership, enjoyed a comparatively high level of engagement particularly from male parents/carers, and was perceived by adult users as positive. It promoted clear decision making about the placement of children. Also, children involved in these assessments appeared to be exposed to low risk of re‐abuse compared to other relevant studies. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Agency policy and the participation of children and young people in the child protection process

This article explores agency policy in relation to children's participation in the child protection process. This was done by examining policy documents and conference minutes and by interviewing social workers and conference chairs working in child protection in Wales. Issues and dilemmas surrounding the participation of children and young people in the child protection process are identified and examined. The lack of children's more direct participation was noted, but many agencies were taking action to inform themselves of children's views indirectly. Advocacy was being more frequently used, and highly valued where it was available, but did raise some role dilemmas. The essentially child‐unfriendly nature of child protection processes (particularly the conferences) was identified as a significant barrier to promoting children's voices. The contradiction of trying to promote children's direct participation in a process that is inherently not geared towards their direct involvement was noted. The total lack of children's input into service planning for child protection services was seen as significant. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceptions of Equity,Balance of Support Exchange,and Mother–Adult Child Relations

Equity theory suggests that relationships are more harmonious when both members of a dyad believe that their exchanges are fair. However, the level and frequency of exchange, rather than perceptions of equity, have been the focus of most research on support and the quality of intergenerational relations. Using data from 1,426 mother–child dyads nested within 413 families collected as part of the Within‐Family Differences Study, the authors explored whether mothers' perceptions of equity are better predictors of closeness and tension than are mothers' reports of balanced exchanges of support. Mixed‐model analyses revealed that mothers' perceptions of equity were more consistent predictors of relationship quality than were the balanced exchanges of support, though the results varied somewhat by gender of adult child. These findings contribute to a growing body of research demonstrating that the psychological processes that shape intergenerational relationships mirror those of other ties.     

Where now for ‘child protection’ in Scotland?

In common with the rest of the UK, child care and protection practice in Scotland has undergone unprecedented change over the last ten years, including a wide‐ranging three‐year Child Protection Reform Programme. In 2006, The University of Dundee's Centre for Child Care and Protection and Barnardo's Scotland Research and Development team were commissioned by the then Scottish Executive to undertake a process review of the Child Protection Reform Programme (Daniel et al., 2007 ). Drawing on findings from the process review, this article considers the impact of the Child Protection Reform Programme. The process review concluded that, in the view of the respondents, the Child Protection Reform Programme made a substantive contribution towards the improvement and delivery of child protection services in Scotland, particularly in terms of raising awareness and increased multi‐agency working. It was beyond the scope of the review to measure outcomes for children as a result of the reforms. Since the completion of the Child Protection Reform Programme, national policy emphasis has broadened from ‘child protection’ towards integrated support for children under the Getting it Right for Every Child reforms of children's services. The paper concludes with a discussion around where ‘child protection’ now fits within this context of universal support for children and argues that there is a need to ensure that the valuable work which was done to improve child protection services in Scotland under the Child Protection Reform Programme is not lost. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Alternative Dispute Resolution in Child Protection Matters: The Victorian Experience

Abstract

Pre-hearing conferences were introduced in 1992 into the Family Division of the Children's Court, Victoria. Pre-hearing conferences take place when there is a dispute between the Child Protection Service and the child's family about the need for statutory intervention in their family's life. The conference is held prior to any formal hearing so that the family, their legal representatives and the welfare authority can see whether they can negotiate an agreement about a child protection order. The present paper sets out the findings of a study of 208 pre-hearing conferences held in the Melbourne Children's Court from February to July 2002. The study found that the quality of legal advice provided to parents significantly affected the outcome of pre-hearing conferences. Legal representatives varied in their willingness to step aside from the adversarial approach and give priority to discussion about child welfare concerns. It was apparent that professionals coming to the pre-hearings, both legal and welfare, had different expectations of these forums. It is imperative that if pre-hearings are to succeed, then their role and place in the child protection legal process is clearly explicated and professionals receive training in alternative dispute resolution.     

Influences on registered nurses' decision‐making in cases of suspected child abuse

This paper reports on the factors influencing decision‐making for a group of 10 South Australian community nurses in cases of suspected child abuse. Each nurse participated in a structured interview. The data were organized into themes, using the computer program NUD*IST. Factors having an impact on the nurses' decisions to report included: the type of suspected abuse, making moral judgements and decision‐making, the consequences of reporting, and the impact versus the outcomes of reporting. Most significantly, the community nurses based many of their decisions on their estimation of the kind of intervention likely to be undertaken by children's protection services. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evidence of Potentially Harmful Psychological Treatments for Children and Adolescents

This paper applies the concept of potentially harmful psychotherapies (PHTs; Lilienfeld, Perspectives on Psychological Science 2(1):53–70, 2007) to concerns about potentially harmful treatments for children and adolescents (PHTCs). I propose that such treatments can be identified by methods derived from the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study and from the NIS-4 study of abuse and neglect, as well as by their plausibility or congruence with established child development theory and research. Five psychological treatments for children and adolescents that have been reported as harmful are examined, using evidence from published materials, journalists’ reports, legal documents and Internet sites. Details of treatment and outcomes are compared to relevant ACE and NIS-4 criteria and to plausibility, and empirical support for the treatments is examined. The examined treatments use methods that would be considered adverse childhood experiences or abusive or neglectful care events if they occurred outside a therapeutic setting. Most, but not all, lack empirical support of effectiveness and are incongruent with established information about child development. Risks associated with PHTCs can thus be identified through close examination before children are exposed to them and harmed. Prevention or reduction of PHTC use may be possible. Public and professional education about PHTCs are essential parts of child protection in this context and are arguably an ethical obligation of both social workers and psychologists.     

The use of sociograms to explore collaboration in child protection conferences

The Strengthening Families child protection conference model attempts to empower parents' participation in conferences and to enhance collaboration between conference participants. This paper, which is part of a broader study looking at the implementation of the Strengthening Families model across a county council in England, UK, explored the use of ‘power’ and ‘mutual interaction’ in both traditional and Strengthening Families child protection conferences. Data was collected using sociograms which were recorded during observations of the two types of conferences. Sociograms were analysed in order to identify patterns in terms of ‘power’ and ‘communication’ together with the use of the ‘group cohesion index’ which enabled us to draw conclusions about the degree of interaction between conference participants.Findings indicated a difference between the use of power in traditional and Strengthening Families conferences. In traditional conferences the power was mostly static (held by the chair), and in the Strengthening Families conferences power was shifted from the leader of the collaboration (chair) to the people who administer the collaboration (conference participants). Also, in the Strengthening Families model more interaction between conference participants and better group coherence were evident; however, in both types of conference communication was limited between the professionals. Sociograms proved a useful method for exploring group dynamics in the context of child protection conferences. It is suggested that a broader understanding of the underpinning principles of the Strengthening Families model is needed to successfully empower parents' participation in conferences and to enhance collaboration between conference participants.     

The mental health problems of mothers experiencing the child protection system: identifying needs and appropriate responses

This article presents the findings of a small pilot study which examined the needs of 13 mothers with severe mental health problems whose children were involved in the child protection system. The use of the diagnosis of ‘personality disorder’ in relation to this group of women is discussed and the finding that all these women had experience of domestic violence is considered in the context of other research findings. The extent to which child protection social workers and mental health professionals worked together on these cases was explored and only limited evidence of good communication and collaboration was found. The need for effective inter‐professional and inter‐agency coordination is argued, but differing conceptions of maternal mental health problems and their relationship to children's needs may make for difficulties in professional communication and decision‐making. The article seeks to identify the differing approaches to maternal mental health problems which appear to be developing out of different groups of research studies and argues that practitioners need to be explicit in identifying their perspectives on the associated issues of maternal mental health problems and child protection. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Keeping Mum: Characteristics and Family Dynamics of Mothers Who Are Liable to Pay Child Support in Australia

In recent decades, changes in post‐separation parenting arrangements in Australia have led to an increase in the small but significant group of mothers liable to pay child support to fathers. The present study uses data from the Child Support Reform Study, a national random sample of separated parents in Australia registered with the Child Support Agency (CSA) in 2008. In total, 185 mothers with a child support liability were identified. Drawing on reports from separated mothers and fathers liable to pay child support in 2008, the study found that 43% of liable mothers had shared or more time. Few liable mothers reported spending no time with their child in the previous 12 months. Unlike liable fathers, mothers with a child support liability tended to be more ‘fearful’ of their former partner; have a resident child in their household; work fewer hours in paid employment; and have older children. Liable mothers were also more likely than other separated mothers to describe the relationship with their former partner as ‘fearful.’ Gendered expectations of parenting mean that liable mothers and liable fathers may adopt different behavioural responses to their roles. The implications of these findings for family therapists are briefly discussed.     

Children's nurses' experiences of child protection: what helps?

This paper reports on one area of findings of a study undertaken in the spring of 2008 at a district general hospital in the south of England. Individual semi‐structured interviews using an interpretive phenomenological approach were undertaken with 15 nurses and midwives working in paediatrics who had been involved in child protection cases. The aim was to explore their views and feelings of the experience. Very little research was found to inform this subject and none specifically with nurses working with sick children. Interviews were taped, transcribed and analysed thematically. It was discovered that involvement in child protection has a lasting impact on individuals; nurses need procedural information from a knowledgeable supporter during a case; and they need support from the right person in the right place at the right time for them. The Named Nurse was identified as being crucial in giving effective support to individuals during child protection cases and trusted advice and support helps staff follow through on niggling concerns, potentially preventing abuse. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Worker skill and client outcome in child protection

The research in child protection and in work with other involuntary clients suggests that the use of certain skills by child protection workers is likely to be related to positive client outcomes. In particular, effective practice involves: helping clients and client families to understand the role of the child protection worker; working through a problem‐solving process which focuses on the client's rather than the worker's definitions of problems; reinforcing the client's pro‐social expression and actions; making appropriate use of confrontation; and using these skills within a collaborative client/worker relationship. This study attempts to identify the extent to which child protection workers make use of these skills and how these skills relate to client outcomes. Data were sought through 50 interviews with child protection workers and 282 interviews with family members. The child protection workers provided information about 247 client families. It was clear that when workers used the skills, their clients had better outcomes—the workers believed their clients showed better progress, the clients were more satisfied with the outcomes and the cases were more likely to have been closed 16 months later. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Obstacles for child participation in care and protection cases—why Norwegian social workers find it difficult

Although some attempts are being made to increase children's participation in Norwegian child protection cases, much needs to be done in order to comply with the participation principle in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. This paper reports on a study of factors that are likely to predict if social workers will attempt to give children an effective voice in decision making processes. 53 child protection case managers and 33 social work students participated in a questionnaire survey in which they were asked to agree or disagree with 20 statements about child participation. Statistical factor analysis was used in order to identify underlying factors in the dataset. The results suggest three main reasons for children not being allowed to participate: communication difficulties (communication factor); because child participation was not deemed necessary (participation advocacy factor); or that participation was considered inappropriate because it might be harmful (protectionism factor). This research suggests that, if we are to improve participation within the child protection system, formal regulations and guidelines need to be accompanied by a greater attention to development of social work skills in working with children through participatory processes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carer perspectives of factors affecting placement trajectories of children in out-of-home care

Carers are at the frontline working with children in the care of the child protection system. This paper reports carer's views about key factors influencing the placement trajectories of children and young people living in out-of-home care in Queensland, Australia. The study sample included 21 foster and kinship carers with a minimum two-year experience in the carer role. Study data were from semi-structured telephone interviews in which carers shared their experiences of the factors impacting upon placement stability and placement movement. Carers' responses were analysed thematically. Data analysis yielded an overarching theme regarding placement trajectory: Carer engagement, and its three sub-themes; with the child; with the child protection system; and, with the caring role. Findings suggested that carer engagement and ‘fit’ are complex constructs that play critical influential roles in placement outcomes (stability or movement) for individual children in out-of-home care. It is argued that practice needs to be better grounded in these relational dynamics, and better aligned concerning the power differentials that exist.     

Getting to yes … or no: Nonprofit decision making and interorganizational restructuring

This article explores the decision‐making process nonprofit organizations use to determine whether to pursue merger or other forms of interorganizational restructuring. The research uses a case study design, analyzing four examples of interorganizational restructuring. The findings describe both the structure and the characteristics of the processes used in four cases. The research found that the decision‐making processes used in the four cases had several core elements. Participants in restructuring customized decision‐making processes to meet their needs, and power dynamics shaped those processes. Findings about the characteristics of the process emphasize the importance of communication and trust. How partners used power affected the decision‐making process and had implications for postmerger success. Decision‐making processes for cases involving two partners exhibited characteristics that were different from those involving multiple partners. Future research should consider the role of trust in restructuring decisions and the responsibilities of board and staff in the restructuring assessment process.     

Preserving Family Therapy's Legacy

Originating as a plenary address, this article reviews the enduring contribution of family therapy, and asks how it might best be preserved into the future, given that family therapy itself is no longer seen as ‘newsworthy’. The author makes three recommendations: that all future social workers be trained to conduct a three‐session structured family assessment; that all future family therapists be required to participate in a Yalom‐type group therapy experience; and that one member of every child mental health and child protection team be trained to convene and chair interagency case conferences capable of building trust and working towards open communication. A rationale for the three recommendations is provided, in terms of key principles common to family and group work.