Scaling the prestige,authority, and income potential of college curricula

This paper develops the concept of “targeted education,” a theoretical ranking of college curricula, into a multidimensional framework. The new scales, based on the traditional stratification dimensions, prestige, authority, and income, are then used in a study of sex differences in the process of occupational achievement among men and women with college degrees. The targeted education scales predict occupational prestige and wages 7 years after the college degree, and they point out interesting differences between male and female attainment processes. In general, targeted education has a greater quantitative impact for men's occupational outcomes than for women's prestige and income, but results also suggest significant qualitative differences between men and women. A large proportion of women target their education toward, and end up in, an under-employed labor pool for the primary and secondary school system.     

Psychological and cultural factors in the process of occupational achievement

An eight-equation model embodies the hypothesis that cultural differences among ethnic-religious groups give rise to differences in psychological dispositions, which, though not directly observable, influence occupational achievement, directly or via educational attainment, while being subject to feedback from one or the other of these endogenous variables. Dispositions are reflected in three fallible indicators, constructed from items in a survey interview of native white men in the Detroit area; the survey also secured socioeconomic measures and an estimate of intelligence. The model is block recursive and over-identified. Parameter estimates are secured by a sequence of ordinary least squares and two-stage least squares procedures, after solving out the structural equations to eliminate the unobservable variables. Numerical results do not strongly support the “Protestant Ethic” theory of achievement, but do suggest that the influence of education on occupation is mediated by motivational as well as cognitive and institutional factors.     

A revised socioeconomic index of occupational status

Duncan's Socioeconomic Index (SEI), a widely used indicator of occupational ranking, is based on education and income data from the 1950 census. The major purpose of this paper is to offer a more contemporary version of this index. There are several reasons for doing so. Not only has the occupational classificatory scheme been altered, but the educational and economic characteristics of the American labor force and of specific occupational groups have changed since 1950. The two decades may also have seen a shift in the relations between the educational and economic attributes of an occupational grouping and its social standing or prestige. Second, the construction of the original SEI rested on the characteristics of the male labor force, rather than those of the total labor force. Third, in the process of updating the index, we illustrate how certain arbitrary decisions (dictated by data limitations) in the construction of the Duncan SEI served to vest the socioeconomic index with some artifactual properties. In the production of an updated version of the socioeconomic index, we use three approaches. First, we experiment with differing measures of the income and educational criteria. Second, we reconstruct the dependent variable, occupational standing, to provide a better approximation of the prestige measure used by Duncan (1961). Third, we consider the attributes of both the male and total labor forces in generating contemporary indexes of occupational status. We also compare the performance of the new socioeconomic indexes in models of occupational attainment against the performance of the original Duncan index and subsequent occupational prestige measures. The paper appends new socioeconomic indexes for detailed occupational titles based on the 1970 census classification of occupations.     

Measures of occupational status in a special population

Previous research has shown that indirect measures of occupational status such as the Duncan Socioeconomic Index (SEI) are more valid than direct measures of occupational prestige, such as those developed by the National Opinion Research Center and by Treiman, for analyses of social mobility. The Professional, Technical, and Kindred (PTK) occupations available for the SEI are a biased sample of all PTK occupations. Do findings on the validity of the SEI pertaining to the general population hold for special populations, such as college graduates? Confirmatory factor analysis comparing the validities of four measures of occupational SES—the SEI, a 1960 counterpart of the SEI developed by Siegel and based on all Census occupations, the NORC prestige scale, and the Treiman international prestige scale—showed that the indirect measure developed by Siegel was clearly more valid than the other three measures. Since these findings indicate that the predictors in a regression equation are more valid than the criterion, there is some question as to what the criterion should really be.     

多元利益主体下中等职业教育社会地位危机研究

中等职业教育作为一种独立存在与发展着的事物或事业,在其运行中存在着多元化的利益主体。虽然近年来中等职业教育数量上得到了绝对的增长,但其社会地位不容乐观。因此,根据利益主体关系,从评价中等职业教育的外部客观因素的家庭、政府和企业角度来研究其社会地位现状,得出其社会地位存在危机的结论。最终为了保障各主体的利益能够得到满足,提高中等职业教育社会地位,提出4点建议：1.加大投资,实现投资渠道多元化;2.加强师资建设;3.健全中等职业教育质量评价机制;4.完善中等职业教育服务市场。     

Sex similarities in occupational status attainment: Are the results due to the restriction of the sample to employed women?

Research on sex differences in occupational attainment suggests that working men and working women attain essentially the same mean level of occupational attainment and do so through quite similar processes. A possible explanation for these similarities is that the sample of working women contains an overrepresentation of successful women, since women who can afford not to work will stay out of the labor force unless they find a job commensurate with their education. This we define as a censoring problem. By extending a technique developed by Heckman, we can estimate the structural parameters for all women, regardless of current employment status. This procedure allows us to assess the impact of the censoring problem on women's occupational attainment equations.     

Dynamic models and attainment in the workplace

The two most marked trends in recent stratification studies are: (1) the shift away from a statical approach to attainment and toward a dynamical representation of achievement, and (2) the shift away from the assumption that achievement is largely a matter of individual characteristics, and toward the view that achievement is the outcome of an employer-employee exchange of productive resources for earnings and status. This paper forges a link between these parallel trends by elaborating on previous formulations of dynamic models of achievement and applying the results to the analysis of earnings attainment in an internal labor market. The modeling section of the paper joins within a single framework the growing interest in ascertaining how a given structure of opportunity shapes achievement and in determining the different points in the career line at which individual background and resource variables impact attainment. Special attention is devoted to the problems facing researchers who wish to bring a dynamic conceptualization of achievement to cross-sectional or otherwise deficient data. Although the empirical application of the various models is largely meant to be illustrative, it is of interest in its own right because it goes substantially beyond previous efforts in this area.     

Some cross-population comparisons of family bias in the effects of schooling on occupational status

It is a truism of research on social stratification that the effects of socioeconomic or family background on educational attainment and adult success lead to biases in the simple regressions of occupational status (or other putative outcomes of schooling) on educational attainment. The present analysis compares findings of family bias in the effects of schooling on occupational status across samples of siblings drawn from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study and from Olneck's sample of brothers from Kalamazoo, Michigan. The comparative analysis shows that family bias in the effect of schooling on occupational status may be much less than is commonly believed and that very large samples may be needed to measure it reliably. Moreover, the analysis suggests that estimates of family bias are very sensitive to the specification of response variability in schooling. The analysis also illustrates some useful methods for cross-population comparison of structural equation models.     

Models of social mobility

Properties of measures and models of social mobility are analyzed in relation to the conceptualization of mobility. Two main objectives of mobility research are identified. One is the study of determinants of occupational achievement, the other is the study of mobility as a characteristic of social systems. It is shown that the realization of both objectives is hindered by a failure of commonly used models and measures of mobility to separate out the various individual and structural factors responsible for mobility.     

A causal approach to the measurement of job statisfaction

Differences in indicators used to measure job satisfaction raise the question of their comparability. Four commonly used measures of job satisfaction are thus compared with respect to their relationship to three independent variables—education, occupational status, and income (i.e., wages)—in the context of a causal model that incorporates considerations of measurement error in both independent and dependent variables. It is found that in some cases, different indicators imply different conclusions regarding the influence of education and occupational status on job satisfaction. The utility of a causal modeling approach to these problems is also demonstrated.     

Trends in occupational mobility in Hungary under socialism

Sociologists have long been interested in the impact of social, economic, and political changes on societal openness. Among other questions, they have asked whether the transition from a preindustrial agrarian society to an industrial socialist state creates more opportunity and equality. Using recent developments in loglinear modeling, this paper tests competing theories about temporal change in social mobility in Hungary in the past half-century. While occupational persistence declined significantly between older cohorts of men and women, the decline slowed or halted in recent cohorts. This suggests that a process of restratification occurred after the socialist revolution. Gender differences in mobility are also prominent. On the one hand, women are less likely than men to enter their fathers' occupational class. On the other hand, women's occupational destinations are more strongly determined by occupational origins. Furthermore, there are significant gender differences in occupational opportunities.     

Are there sex differences in the utilization of educational capital among college-educated workers?

This paper introduces the concept of educational utilization as an overlooked part of the education-to-work transition and a potential mechanism by which occupational sex segregation is generated among the college-educated labor force. The paper begins with a critical discussion of the operationalization approaches that have been used in prior research that implicitly measures educational utilization. Multiple empirical measure of the concept are then developed using data from the O*NET and the National Surveys of College Graduates. The explanatory power of each measure is assessed using conditional logit models of occupational attainment. A combined measure is then used to assess sex differences in educational utilization using data from the 1993 and 2003 National Surveys of College Graduates for 2 cohorts of college graduates—those who earned their baccalaureate or post-baccalaureate degrees and entered the labor market in the years 1985–1993 and 1995–2003. The analysis identifies sex differences in educational utilization that vary across field, degree level and cohort and concludes with an examination of the implications of sex differences in educational utilization for occupational segregation.     

Measures of gender role attitudes under revision: The example of the German General Social Survey

Using the example of the German General Social Survey, this study describes how measures of gender role attitudes can be revised. To date measures have focused on the traditional male breadwinner model. However, social developments in female labor force participation, education, and family structure suggest that a revision and adjustment of existing measures are required. First, these measures need to be supplemented with items that represent more egalitarian models of division of labor and the role of the father in the family. Second, the phrasing of existing items needs to be revised. The results of this study indicate that especially regarding the amount of working hours and the age of children, a specification is needed. This study presents a revised measure, to facilitate analyses over time. This revised measure represents two factors: one referring to traditional and one to modern gender role attitudes.     

论人与自然之间存在的伦理关系

人与自然之间存在伦理关系,是因为人与自然的价值关系有一定的道德意义,人在与自然的关系中的行为需要用道德要求加以规范,人与自然的联系存在着诸多道德问题。人与自然的伦理关系在双方的主体地位、作用等方面有自己的特点。处理人与自然的伦理关系需要依据合理的尺度,其中包括自然的尺度、人的尺度、人与自然的关系尺度等,以保持人与自然的可持续存在和可持续发展。     

我国职业卫生事件健康教育的现状及对策浅探--以尘肺病事件为例

近年来我国重大职业卫生事件屡有发生,职业卫生健康教育的欠缺是很重要的原因。调查职业健康教育的现状、内容方式、保障机制等问题,采用问卷调查方法调查企业职工,得出统计分析结果,职业健康教育及保障严重不足,提出加强职业健康教育的对策,有效防范职业卫生事件。     

社会行动的意义效应与东亚三国集体结构的锻铸--关于现时代中、日、韩关系的一种社会学理论构想

全球化的迅速发展对东亚地区产生了日益深刻的持续影响.一方面,为了成为全球化的适应者,东亚三国强化了国内的政策调整与制度改革,以提高对超国家的全球体系的应对能力.另一方面,在金融、贸易、生态环境等领域,东亚已形成了跨国性的区域合作.如何使国家在全球体系中获得安全,并进一步促进跨国性区域合作,以对国际关系机制形成广泛而积极的影响,是东亚国家所要面对的共同课题.从社会行动意义效应的理论角度看,社会行动与社会结构是同一社会过程的两个观察侧面,它们之间是相互胶着和彼此建塑的关系.现代社会主体是"意义主体",社会行动则是"意义行动".在社会主体行动的意义效应过程中,促成了意义化的行动关联模式体系,亦即行动的结构.结构中的"异者"与"异见"可通过结构意义资源的不断生成而建立起某种共同的悟知和一致性的意愿.如果结构内部的意义资源能够形成一轮又一轮的递进状态,将为持久、稳定、富于生机的合作体系奠定坚实的基础.因此,"东亚三国集体结构"可以说应当是作为行动主体的中、日、韩三国间的行动意义效应过程所锻铸或建塑的一种事实过程.随着中、日、韩三国共有悟知的发展,去中心化过程、主体平等必将进一步推进,从而使相互间通过让与或坚持、接受或拒绝,增进认可、理解、共识以及智慧和创意,将为"东亚三国集体结构"提供现实性基础.     

论世贸组织体系下的司法审查对象

WTO(世贸组织)体制下的司法审查对象从总体看应为各成员政府的对外贸易管理行为或措施,实践中往往反映为各种贸易壁垒措施。司法审查对象针对的是被审查行为的性质,解决的是被诉主体及其行为的可诉性问题。从WTO各成员的国内司法审查和WTO／DSB的国际司法审查来看,司法审查对象亦有国内与国际之分。前者根据各国不同体制而异,但以具体行政行为或措施为主;后者以各成员的抽象措施为主,但并不涉及可诉性与非可诉性问题,而有违反之诉与非违反之诉之分。     

Sex and marriage of raters in the evaluation of occupations

The evaluation of occupational prestige ratings obtained from different subgroups within the same society has been shown to be remarkably similar (Reiss, A. J., Jr., Duncan, O. D., Hah, P. K., and North, C. C., 1961, Occupations and Social Status, Free Press, New York; Svalastoga, K., 1959, Prestige, Class, and Mobility, Gyldendal, Copenhagen; Tiryakian, E. A., 1958, American Journal of Sociology 63 (January), 390–399). Our purpose is to explore how the gender and marital status of raters influence the evaluation of occupational prestige. Using more detailed data than heretofore available, we will reexamine the similarity between occupational prestige evaluations observed among female and male respondents. Models of the way in which characteristics of occupational incumbents, such as income and education, are constructed to explore possible differences in the ways in which male and female raters evaluate occupations. The results of this analysis by gender of rater will then be used to examine both the gender and marital status of raters.     

Parental investment in childhood and educational qualifications: Can greater parental involvement mediate the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage?

Parental involvement is important for later well-being since it conveys to children that parents are interested in their development. In socioeconomically disadvantaged homes this involvement becomes even more important. This paper asks: Can the social capital produced by greater parental involvement mediate some of the harmful effects of less financial capital? Data are from the National Child Development Study; a longitudinal study of children born in Britain in 1958. Results suggest that parental involvement does matter, but it depends on when involvement and economic hardship are measured, as well as type of involvement and parent gender. Father interest in education reduces the impact of economic hardship on education the most, especially at age 11. Both father and mother interest in school at age 16 have the largest direct impact on education. The frequency of outings with mother at age 11 also has a larger direct impact on education than outings with father, however, neither compare with the reduction in the effect of economic hardship as a result of father interest in school.     

师范生心理健康教育问题与对策研究

师范生作为一类特殊的学生群体,承载着社会和家庭的双重期望和压力,他们的心理健康对社会教育工作具有重要影响。文章阐述了师范生心理健康教育的重要性,找出了目前师范高校心理健康教育存在的问题及原因,在此基础之上提出了相应的对策,并建议高校从自身实际情况出发,加大经费投入,拓展师范生心理健康教育的新途径。