The Moderating Effects of Risk, Protection and Desistance on Violence in Female Adolescents

The major focus of this study was to test the theory driven conceptual model derived from the literature regarding risk, protective and desistance factors in relation to violent behavior of female adolescents. This study utilized The National Longitudinal Adolescent Health Study (Add Health) dataset and included 2,031 female participants. The conceptual model developed was based on life course perspective as it relates to violent behavior in adolescents. The tested SEM model suggested: (1) that each of the latent variables of risk (β = .06, t = .02, p < .001) and protective factors (β = −.07, t = .01, p < .001) were significantly directly associated with violent behavior, (2) the latent variable, desistance factors (β = .01, t = .06, p > .05), was not significantly directly associated with violent behavior, (3) there were mediating effects between risk factors, protective factors and violent behavior (β = −.12, t = .04, p < .05) and (4) there were no mediating effects between risk factors, desistance factors and violent behavior (β = −1.28, t = 2.99, p > .05).     

Cumulative Environmental Risk and Youth Problem Behavior

Using data from Wave 1 (n = 5,070) and Wave 2 (n = 4,404) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examined the relationship between cumulative risk exposure and youth problem behavior. Cross‐sectional analyses revealed a positive, linear association between cumulative risk and problem behaviors. The association between cumulative risk and externalizing problems was stronger for White youth than for Black youth. The association between cumulative risk and internalizing problems was stronger for girls than for boys, and stronger for White youth than for Black and Hispanic youth. Cumulative risk predicted change over time in internalizing problems. Findings support the theoretical notion that adolescents experience diminished psychological comfort when risk factors are present across several social domains.     

Parenting as a moderator of minority, adolescent victimization and violent behavior in high-risk neighborhoods

Adolescent male youth in high-crime neighborhoods are at the greatest risk for personal victimization and violent behavior. The temporal relationship between victimization and violent behavior for minority youth in high-crime neighborhoods was examined to determine whether victimization is a risk factor for or by-product of violent behavior. Whether parenting and other control factors moderated the relationship between victimization and violent behavior was also examined. Interviews with 349 urban Hispanic and African American youth revealed that victimization was strongly associated with violent behavior and violent behavior was found to precede direct victimization. Race was found to moderate the relationship between parental attachment and violent behavior. African American youth with the highest levels of parental attachment also had the highest levels of violent behavior, while higher parental attachment for Latino youth was associated with lower violent behavior.     

Relationship Risks in Context: A Cumulative Risk Approach to Understanding Relationship Satisfaction

Risks associated with less satisfying intimate relationships often co‐occur within individuals, raising questions about approaches that consider only their independent impact. Utilizing the cumulative risk model, which acknowledges the natural covariation of risk factors, this study examined individuals in intimate relationships using the Florida Family Formation Survey (n = 2,876) and a replication sample (n = 1,048). Analyses confirmed that not only was relationship satisfaction lower among those with more risks, but the cumulative risk score was predictive above and beyond the individual risk factors. Furthermore, experiencing multiple risks exacerbated the negative associations between individual risks and relationship satisfaction, suggesting that the operation of a risk factor in a relationship is moderated by the presence or absence of other risks.     

Adult‐Directed and Peer‐Directed Respect for Authority: Relationships With Aggressive and Manipulative Behavior

This study investigated whether respect for adult and peer authority are separate attitudes which have distinct relationships with aggressive and manipulative behavior. Items assessing admiration for and obedience toward parents, teachers, popular students, and friend group leaders were administered to 286 middle school students (M age = 12.6 years). Factor analysis revealed two primary factors which corresponded to adult‐directed and peer‐directed respect orientations. Results suggested that adult‐directed respect was associated with lower levels of aggression and social manipulation, whereas peer‐directed respect was associated with higher levels of these behaviors. The role of peer‐directed respect as a risk factor for negative social behavior in adolescence is discussed.     

Prenatal Reflective Functioning and Accumulated Risk as Predictors of Maternal Interactive Behavior During Free Play,the Still‐Face Paradigm,and Two Teaching Tasks

This study examined whether prenatal reflective functioning (RF) was related to mothers’ interactive style across contexts with their 6‐month‐old infants (M age = 6.02 months, SD = 0.41, 54% boys), and to what extent quality of prenatal RF could account for the influence of accumulated risk on maternal interactive behavior. Accumulated risk was defined as the sum‐score of a selection of risk factors that have been associated with suboptimal infant development. Mother–infant dyads (N = 133) were observed during free play, two teaching tasks, and the Still‐Face Paradigm (SFP). Better prenatal RF was associated with more positive maternal behavior in all settings and less negative behavior during teaching and SFP reengagement. Accumulated risk and prenatal RF predicted shared variance in maternal interactive behavior (with unique predictive effects observed only for RF on sensitivity during teaching and SFP play, and for accumulated risk on sensitivity and positive engagement during SFP play, and internalizing‐helplessness during SFP reengagement). Accumulated risk had an indirect effect on maternal sensitivity during teaching and SFP play through prenatal RF. These findings suggest not only that RF may be targeted prenatally to improve mother–infant interactions, but also that enhancing RF skills may ameliorate some of the negative consequences from more stable perinatal risk factors that influence parent–child interactions.     

Delinquency,School Context,and Risk Factors in India,Australia, and the United States: Implications for Prevention

There is a dearth of research on delinquency, school context, and risk factors across developed and developing nations. Using representative samples and matched surveys, we examined delinquency among cohorts in Mumbai, India (N = 3,717); Victoria, Australia (N = 1,842); and Washington State (WA), United States (N = 1,828). We used multivariate Poisson hierarchical linear modeling. Risk factor and delinquency levels varied across sites. Delinquency clustered within certain schools, particularly in Mumbai. Community disorganization exhibited an association with delinquency as a school‐level context effect in Mumbai and Victoria. Peer delinquency, sensation seeking, and poor family management exhibited cross‐nationally consistent associations with delinquency. Programs that target schools, the clustering of problem behaviors, and cross‐nationally consistent risk factors should be considered internationally.     

Cumulative Risk for Early Sexual Initiation Among American Indian Youth: A Discrete‐Time Survival Analysis

Approximately 3 million teens are diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease (STD) annually; STDs rates for American Indian young adults are among the highest of any racial/ethnic group. An important risk factor for STDs is early initiation of sex. In this study, we examined risk for early initiation with 474 American Indian youth ages 14–18, using 11 risk factors from three developmentally important microsystems (family, school, peers) along with several individual characteristics; a cumulative risk index was also calculated. Discrete‐time survival analyses showed that predictors of early initiation differed by gender. For young men, younger initiation of sex was predicted by lower grades, liking school less, having peers with less prosocial attitudes, a greater likelihood of having used alcohol or drugs at first sex, and having higher sensation‐seeking. For young women, earlier initiation was related to having mothers who had their first child at an early age and who had less formal education, to having parents who had divorced, dropping out of high school, using alcohol/drugs at first sex, and higher sensation‐seeking. Higher cumulative risk was associated with elevated risk of sexual initiation, although the degree of added risk varied with age for women. Cumulative risk deserves broader attention in understanding the early initiation of sexual intercourse.     

Interplay Between Sensation Seeking and Parental Rules in the Emergence of Heavy Episodic Drinking

This study examined the parallel mediational processes between sensation seeking and parental rules on alcohol, in the emergence of heavy episodic drinking (HED) in adolescents. Data were drawn from a U.K. clustered randomized control trial (control arm only, N ≈ 6,300, M_age at baseline = 12.5). Using parallel process latent growth curve analysis, stricter parental rules at baseline were found to be associated with greater declines in sensation seeking over time and a lower risk of HED at follow‐up (+33 months). Higher initial levels of sensation seeking predicted a faster relaxation of parental rules and a greater risk of HED. By maintaining strict rules about alcohol, parents may promote a positive reduction in sensation seeking and a lower risk of HED.     

Risk-taking, attitudes toward aggression, and aggressive behavior among rural middle school youth

This study examined the relationship between risk-taking, general acceptance of aggression (GAA), verbal harassment (VH), and aggressive behavior (AB) in the last 30 days among 1440 seventh- and eighth-grade rural middle school youth. Higher levels of risk-taking predicted higher GAA and VH. Significant interactions for AB indicated that, excepting Black youth, higher risk-taking was related to higher levels of violent behavior. Among Black youth the highest levels of AB occurred at moderate levels of risk-taking. Level of risk-taking is an important risk factor that should be taken into account in the study of attitudes toward aggression and aggressive behavior among rural youth.     

Adolescent Personality as Risk and Resiliency in the Testosterone–Externalizing Association

Previous investigations of testosterone and externalizing behavior have provided mixed findings. We tested the hypothesis that self‐regulatory personality moderates the testosterone–externalizing behavior association in adolescence. Parents reported on their 13‐ to 18‐year‐old (N = 106, M_age = 16.01, SD = 1.29) children's personalities and psychopathology. Testosterone was measured via drool samples. As hypothesized, personality moderated the testosterone–externalizing behavior association. High testosterone predicted higher levels of externalizing behaviors, but only for adolescents low in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Also, personality acted as a resiliency factor: high levels of Conscientiousness, in the presence of high testosterone, predicted lower levels of rule breaking. Results highlight how endogenous factors, such as personality, may interact with testosterone, and emphasize the relevance of including personality moderators in future research.     

Marital Quality,Gender, and Markers of Inflammation in the MIDUS Cohort

Marital quality is an important factor for understanding the relationship between marriage and health. Low‐quality relationships may not have the same health benefits as high‐quality relationships. To understand the association between marital quality and health, we examined associations between two indicators of marital quality (marital support and marital strain) and two biomarkers of inflammation (interleukin‐6 and C‐reactive protein) among men and women in long‐term marriages using data from the Survey of Midlife in the United States (N = 542). Lower levels of spousal support were associated with higher levels of inflammation among women but not men. Higher levels of spousal strain were weakly and inconsistently associated with higher levels of inflammation among women and men; the effects were diminished with the addition of psychosocial and behavioral covariates. These findings suggest marital quality is an important predictor of inflammation, especially among women.     

Puberty and Transdiagnostic Risks for Mental Health

Puberty in girls represents a notable period of vulnerability for different psychological disorders. The research literature has primarily considered external and contextual factors that might explain these rises in symptomatology. In the present study, we investigate relations of pubertal status and timing with individual cognitive, emotional, and behavioral tendencies, commonly identified as transdiagnostic processes, in a sample of N = 228 girls (M_age = 11.75 years). We also test whether these transdiagnostic processes mediate associations of pubertal status and pubertal timing with depressive symptoms. Results support greater endorsement of rumination, co‐rumination, negative urgency, and both anxious and angry rejection sensitivity in girls with more advanced pubertal status, as well as in girls with early pubertal timing. Higher levels of transdiagnostic processes fully mediated associations of pubertal status and timing with depressive symptoms at significant and marginally significant levels, respectively. Although the data are cross‐sectional, these findings offer promising preliminary evidence that transdiagnostic processes represent an important mental health risk in early adolescent girls.     

Mothering and Peer Associations Mediate Cumulative Risk Effects for Latino Youth

The present study examined whether positive parenting and deviant peer associations mediated the relations between a cumulative risk composite comprising financial strain, neighborhood problems, and maternal psychological distress and subsequent youth adjustment problems. Drawn from the Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three City Study, the sample consisted of 449 economically disadvantaged Latino families. Structural equation modeling showed that after controlling for baseline levels of youth adjustment problems, cumulative risk, assessed when adolescents were 10 to 14 years old, was directly and indirectly predictive of youths’ deviant peer associations 16 months later, through mother’s positive parenting. Deviant peer associations, in turn, were proximally associated with youth externalizing and internalizing problems. Findings underscore the role of mothers and peers in Latino youth adjustment problems.     

Cumulative victimization, psychological distress, and high-risk behavior among substance-involved women

This research addressed two questions: (a) What is the relationship between different patterns of cumulative victimization and psychological distress? And (b) How does the pattern of cumulative victimization and psychological distress influence women's engagement in substance- and sex-related risk behavior? Data were analyzed from interviews with 149 sexually active, crack-using women who completed a follow-up interview after participating in the Kentucky National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) AIDS Cooperative Agreement. Findings from the multivariate analyses indicated that victimization accounted for 5% and 39% of the variance in psychological distress and high-risk behavior, respectively; cumulative victimization and psychological distress accounted for 6% to 11% of the variance in the high-risk behaviors. Results highlight the affects of childhood and adult victimization on psychological distress and the associations between different types of psychological distress and risk behavior.     

Co-development of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems during early childhood among child welfare-involved children

Using parallel-process latent growth curve modeling, we examine developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems and identify early risk factors for behavior problems among 329 child welfare-involved children followed from age 2 years to 5 years. Data are drawn from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being II. On average, internalizing behavior problems remained stable, while externalizing behavior problems decreased over time. Higher initial levels of internalizing behavior problems were associated with higher initial levels of externalizing behavior problems. Rates of change also had positive cross-domain relationships. Child neglect, exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV), insecure caregiver-child attachment, and caregiver mental health problems were associated with higher initial levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Exposure to IPV, out-of-home care, and caregiver drug use predicted rates of change in behavior problems. Our findings highlight the importance of comprehensive assessment and treatment for co-occurring internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in young children involved in the child welfare system. Results also indicate the need for identifying and addressing early risk factors to prevent early onset and continued development of behavior problems in high-risk children.     

Hanging Out With the Right Crowd: Peer Influence on Risk‐Taking Behavior in Adolescence

Peer influence plays a key role in the increase of risk‐taking behavior during adolescence. However, its underlying processes are not fully understood. This study examined the effects of social norms, conveyed through peer advice, on risk‐taking behavior in 15‐ to 17‐year‐old adolescents (N = 76). Participants played a card‐guessing task alone and with online peer advice. Results showed that risk‐taking increased in the presence of peers. The results further showed that adolescents took into account the uncertainty associated with gambles, as well as the social norms conveyed by peers. Our findings suggest that peers are most influential in uncertain situations and demonstrate the value of a social norms approach in examining the processes underlying peer effects.     

Exploring the Moderating Influence of Delinquent Peers on the Link Between Trauma, Anger, and Violence Among Male Youth: Implications for Social Work Practice

This study’s objective was to explore the influence of delinquent peer exposure, on the relationship between male youths’ histories of trauma, anger, and violent behavior. Using a nationally representative sample of male adolescents aged 12–17 and self report interviews, information was gathered on their levels of exposure to violence, stressful life events (SLE), anger, depression, delinquent peer exposure, and violent behavior. Results of a moderation analyses revealed that youth who reported higher levels of exposure to trauma, anger, and delinquent peers were at an increased risk for anger and for violent offending. Delinquent peer exposure exerted a significant interaction effect on the relationship between anger and violent offending. The implications for prevention and intervention efforts are delineated.     

Associations Between School Connection and Depressive Symptoms From Adolescence Through Early Adulthood: Moderation by Early Adversity

Depressive symptomatology is one of the most common and costly threats to American mental health, making the elucidation of environmental influences on depressive symptoms particularly important. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study explores the interaction between environmental risk and protective factors in the etiology of depressive symptoms by asking whether school connection is associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms through early adulthood, and whether connection serves as a protective or promotive factor for youth who experienced early adversity. Findings highlight the importance of school connection in promoting long‐term mental health for all youth and suggest that policies and practice supporting school connection may be effective intervention strategies for youth at risk for depressive symptomatology.     

Deviant Peer Behavior and Adolescent Delinquency: Protective Effects of Inhibitory Control,Planning, or Decision Making?

We examined relations between adolescent perceptions of deviant peer behavior and delinquency as moderated by inhibitory control, planning, and decision making in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development at age 15 (N = 991). Adolescents reported perceptions of deviant peer behavior. Inhibitory control, planning, and decision making were assessed behaviorally. Delinquency was evaluated with a latent variable comprised of parent‐guardian perceptions of adolescent delinquency and adolescent self‐reports. Only inhibitory control moderated the relationship between deviant peer behavior and delinquency, showing that better inhibition protected against delinquency in contexts of high levels of adolescent perceptions of deviant peer behavior. Findings are discussed in the context of theories of adolescent delinquency and risk taking.