Economic predictors of child maltreatment in an Australian population-based birth cohort

A correlation between socioeconomic disadvantage and child maltreatment has long been observed, but the drivers of this association are poorly understood. We sought to estimate the effects of economic factors on risk of child maltreatment after adjusting for other known influences using the Australian Temperament Project, a population-based birth cohort of 2443 individuals and their parents. We used logistic regression to estimate associations of childhood economic factors (parental education, occupation, and unemployment; type of housing; and retrospective perception of poverty) with retrospective reports of perceived child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and witnessing of domestic violence), controlling for demographic factors, parental mental health and substance use, and child health. We then used these estimates to approximate the proportions of child maltreatment—population attributable fractions—that are theoretically preventable by addressing childhood economic disadvantage. Economic factors were associated with all types of child maltreatment. For the most part, these associations diminished only partially when controlling for noneconomic confounders, supporting hypotheses of causal relationships. Jointly, economic factors were significant predictors of physical abuse, sexual abuse, and witnessing of domestic violence but not of emotional abuse or neglect. Retrospective perceptions of childhood poverty were, in particular, strongly associated with most forms of child maltreatment but not with sexual abuse after accounting for other economic factors. We estimated that 27% of all child maltreatment was jointly attributable to economic factors. These findings suggest that strategies that reduce economic disadvantage are likely to hold significant potential to reduce the prevalence of child maltreatment.     

The Role of Early Maladaptive Schemas in the Appearance of Psychological Symptomatology in Adult Women Victims of Child Abuse

ABSTRACT

Child abuse affects people’s ways of thinking, feeling, and observing the world, resulting in dysfunctional beliefs and maladaptive schemas. Thus, consequences of child abuse may persist during adulthood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the psychological consequences (anxiety, phobic anxiety, depression, and hopelessness) of different types of maltreatment (physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and physical and emotional neglect) and to study the role of early maladaptive schemas in the onset of symptomatology in adult female victims of child abuse. The sample consisted of 75 women referred by associations for treatment of abuse and maltreatment in childhood. Sexual abuse was the type of maltreatment that was most strongly related to most dysfunctional symptomatology, followed by emotional abuse and physical abuse, whereas physical neglect was the least related. Also, early maladaptive schemas were found to correlate with child abuse and dysfunctional symptomatology. Finally, early maladaptive schemas mediated the relationship between sexual abuse and dysfunctional symptomatology when the effect of other types of abuse was controlled. These results may provide important guidance for clinical intervention.     

Social support as a mediator of revictimization of low-income African American women

Mediating effects of social support on the link between childhood maltreatment and adult intimate partner violence (IPV) were explored in a sample of 362 low-income, African American women. We examined relations between childhood maltreatment experiences (total maltreatment, sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and physical neglect) and adult maltreatment (physical IPV and nonphysical IPV). Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed small, but significant, effects. Further, social support mediated revictimization. Social support fully mediated relations in which the form of childhood maltreatment was different than the form of adult IPV (e.g., the relation between childhood sexual abuse and adult nonphysical IPV), but only partially mediated the relations in which the form of childhood maltreatment was similar to adult IPV (e.g., the relation between childhood emotional abuse and adult nonphysical IPV). Implications for clinical interventions for women with intimate partner violence experiences are discussed.     

Child Maltreatment, Abortion Availability, and Economic Conditions

Child maltreatment is a substantial problem in the U.S. yet has received relatively little attention from economists. This article examines the relationship between abortion availability and economic factors at the time children were conceived and subsequent measures of child maltreatment in the U.S. as well as the influence of contemporaneous economic conditions. Our measures of child maltreatment are state-level rates of child abuse and neglect reports, the fraction of children receiving social services, and child deaths and murders. The results indicate that legalized abortion for each successive cohort led to a decline in total reported incidents of child abuse and neglect of about 10 percent and a negative effect on the fraction of children receiving social services. Child deaths and murders are not related to abortion legalization. Medicaid funding restrictions are associated with an increase in substantiated reports of abuse and an increase in murders by relatives or parents; other post-legalization restrictions are not consistently associated with the various measures of child maltreatment. The effects of welfare benefits, average income, and unemployment rates are mixed.     

The relation between early abuse and adult sexuality

One thousand and thirty‐two (566 non‐Asian; 466 Asian) undergraduates were assessed in a confidential laboratory setting regarding levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and a wide range of sexuality variables. The purpose was to examine relationships between specific forms of early abuse and later adult sexuality, and to assess potential gender and ethnic differences in these associations. Independent of other forms of abuse, sexual abuse in females was significantly positively related to sexual drive and experience, range of sexual fantasies, liberal sexual attitudes, frequency of intercourse and masturbation, and likelihood of engaging in unrestricted sexual behaviors and fantasies, and was negatively related to virginity status. Among males, emotional abuse was significantly associated with poor body image and sexual dissatisfaction, independent of the other forms of abuse. There were no significant differences in associations between early abuse and sexuality between persons of Southeast Asian and European ancestry.     

Multi‐type maltreatment and the long‐term adjustment of adults

Multi‐type maltreatment refers to the experience of more than one form of child maltreatment (sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect and witnessing family violence). Researchers have largely ignored the presence of other types of child abuse and neglect when examining the adjustment problems associated with a particular form of maltreatment. The association between ‘multi‐type maltreatment’ and adjustment was explored in the current study. Retrospective data were obtained on (a) the degree to which maltreatment types co‐occurred, (b) childhood family characteristics and (c) adjustment problems in adulthood in an Australian self‐selected community sample (N=175). As hypothesized, a large degree of overlap was reported in the experience of the five types of maltreatment. Family characteristics—particularly family cohesion and adaptability—discriminated between respondents reporting single‐type and multi‐type maltreatment. Greater adjustment problems were associated with reports of a larger number of different maltreatment types. Multi‐type maltreatment should be recognized as a crucial aspect of the nature and impact of child maltreatment and considered in the development of programmes for the prevention and treatment of child abuse and neglect. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parenting stress and child maltreatment: The buffering effect of neighborhood social service availability and accessibility

The current study examines the relationship between aspects of social service availability and child maltreatment. Specifically, the study uses negative binomial regression to estimate whether service availability, accessibility, and receipt are associated with physical child abuse and neglect. Relying on Social Cognitive Theory and Stress and Coping Theory, the moderating effect of the service variables was tested on the relationship between parenting stress and maltreatment. The sample is comprised of 1053 parents who completed a survey in July of 2014. The findings suggest that service availability has a potential protective effect against physical abuse and neglect, and that service accessibility has an additional protective effect above and beyond sheer availability of services for child neglect. Further, the availability of services has a significant moderating effect – it decreased the relationship between parent stress and abuse and neglect. Service receipt had a paradoxical effect — although one might expect receiving social services to reduce maltreatment, there was a positive correlation between the two such that parents reporting receipt of a greater number of services tended to have higher levels of abuse and neglect. Further, service receipt moderated the relationship between parenting stress and neglect, such that the relationship was stronger. The study suggests that efforts to increase service availability and accessibility may prevent child maltreatment.     

Prevalence of childhood abuse in mothers taking part in a study of parenting their own children

This paper describes the incidence of maltreatment histories in a community sample of mothers of one‐year‐old infants in Northern Ireland. The occurrence of five subsets of childhood maltreatment is examined: emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse, physical neglect and sexual abuse. Of the 201 women who completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, 70 mothers (35%) reported that they had experienced one or more types of maltreatment during childhood. Forty‐eight mothers (24%) gave a history of being emotionally abused, 43 (21%) of emotional neglect, 27 (13%) of physical abuse, 20 (10%) of sexual abuse and 19 (10%) of physical neglect. Physical abuse was the only type of maltreatment which showed an association with maternal socio‐economic status, with a higher incidence reported amongst Occupational Classes 4 and 5 (lower supervisory and technical occupations and semi‐routine and routine groups). More than half of those with a history of abuse experienced more than one type of maltreatment (42 mothers or 60% of those reporting maltreatment). Differences in rates of incidence to more recent studies on younger adults are discussed, as well as implications for prevention and intervention. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self-reported and case file maltreatment: Relations to psychosocial outcomes for youth in foster care

The aim of the current study was to explore the relation between maltreatment and psychosocial outcomes for youth in foster care, and how this relation differs according to reporter type (self-report or case file). Participants included 285 children and adolescents and their caregivers who completed self-report questionnaires about lifetime maltreatment and psychosocial adjustment. Youths' case files containing lifetime maltreatment reports were obtained from Division of Social Services (DSS), and were coded for physical and sexual abuse, emotional maltreatment, and neglect using the Modified Maltreatment Classification System (MMCS; English & LONGSCAN Investigators, 1997). Crosstabs analysis was used to summarize proportions of youth whose caregivers reported clinically significant internalizing and externalizing and average to high adaptive functioning within groups of youth who had a) neither self-reported nor case file maltreatment, b) only case file maltreatment, c) only self-reported maltreatment, and d) both case file and self-reported maltreatment for each maltreatment type (physical and sexual abuse, emotional maltreatment, and neglect). Results showed that externalizing symptoms differ according to reporter type for physical and sexual abuse, and that internalizing symptoms differ according to reporter type for sexual abuse. Implications for methodology in maltreatment research are discussed.     

Risky Sexual Behaviors and Pregnancy Outcomes in Young Adulthood Following Substantiated Childhood Maltreatment: Findings From a Prospective Birth Cohort Study

Childhood maltreatment is associated with a range of adverse mental and physical health outcomes, including increased rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) later in life. However, the impact on risky sexual behaviors and pregnancy outcomes has not been adequately studied. This is particularly true for physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. We examined associations between prospectively substantiated childhood maltreatment and reports of risky sexual behaviors by men and women, as well as selected pregnancy outcomes in women. We followed up 3,081 (45.7% female) participants from the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy, a prospective Australian birth cohort study. Using logistic regression, we examined the association between substantiated childhood maltreatment from birth to 14 years, and self-reported risky sexual behaviors and youth pregnancy outcomes at the 21-year follow-up. In adjusted analyses, children who had experienced multiple childhood maltreatment exhibited more risky sexual behaviors than their nonmaltreated counterparts. In specific models, those exposed to each form of childhood maltreatment, independent of co-occurring forms of childhood maltreatment, had an increased likelihood of risky sexual behaviors, particularly an early sexual debut and, for women, youth pregnancy. Neglect was also associated with multiple sexual partners, and emotional abuse with higher rates of miscarriage. There was no difference between men and women in how different forms of childhood maltreatment predicted risky sexual behaviors in young adulthood. All forms of substantiated childhood maltreatment, including multiple substantiations, were associated with risky sexual behavior in both sexes as well as higher rates of youth pregnancy in women. Moreover, emotional abuse persistently predicted miscarriages in young adult women. Understanding the association between childhood maltreatment and risky sexual behaviors and youth pregnancy outcomes may help suggest preventive strategies.     

Child maltreatment in China: An ecological review of the literature

This article presents findings of a systematic review of empirical studies on child maltreatment in China that were published in either English or Chinese. The review uses Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory as a lens to examine risk and protective factors of child maltreatment within micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chrono- system levels. A search of 5 electronic bibliographic databases and websites identified 24 outcome studies on child maltreatment in China, which included studies that examined physical/emotional/sexual abuse, and neglect. The most direct influences of child maltreatment in the micro-level system include the parent-child relationship and intergenerational transmission of abuse. At the macro-system level, maltreatment is explained by cultural values such as filial piety and familism. In essence, different factors are found within the various system levels that indicate the complexities of the factors that influence child maltreatment. Throughout the article, we highlight the need to understand the cultural dynamics, values, and mores of Chinese families. The discussion includes practical suggestions and implications for intervention with children, parents, and grandparents that school teachers, social workers, policy makers, and researchers can utilize.     

Parent gender and child removal in physical abuse and neglect cases

Criminal justice research frequently investigates relationships between punishment decisions and demographic characteristics of the accused, such as gender, race, and age. While there are many similarities between criminal justice and child welfare cases, research on child maltreatment has yet to examine potential demographic influences on case outcomes. The current study examines relationships between parent gender, type of maltreatment, and child removal among agency responses to child maltreatment cases. Using data collected by the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), we identify differences in the likelihood of child removal from the parental home across type of maltreatment and perpetrator gender. Our results indicate that mother perpetrators of physical abuse not only face significantly higher likelihood of removal than mother perpetrators of neglect, but are more at risk for losing their children than father perpetrators of both physical abuse and neglect. Findings suggest that gendered attributions and stereotypes regarding parenting can shape assessments of parents' blameworthiness, dangerousness, and rehabilitative potential. We propose that future research on child maltreatment cases adapt and apply justice concepts and frameworks to uncover potential unwarranted demographic disparities in agency decision-making.     

Pathways Linking Childhood Maltreatment and Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors: The Role of Attachment Security

Previous research has shown an association between child maltreatment (sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, or witnessing interparental violence) and adolescent sexual risk behaviors (SRBs). The mechanisms explaining this association are not well understood, but attachment theory could provide further insight into them. This study examined the relationships between child maltreatment and SRBs and investigated anxious and avoidant attachment as mediators. The sample comprised 1,900 sexually active adolescents (13 to 17 years old; 60.8% girls) attending Quebec high schools. The results of path analyses indicated that neglect was associated with a higher number of sexual partners, casual sexual behavior, and being younger at first intercourse. Anxious attachment mediated the relation between neglect and number of sexual partners, whereas avoidant attachment explained the relation between neglect and number of sexual partners, casual sexual behavior, and age at first intercourse (for boys only). Sexual abuse was directly associated with all three SRBs. Neither anxious attachment nor avoidant attachment mediated these associations. Youth with a history of neglect and sexual abuse represent a vulnerable population that is likely to engage in SRBs. Interventions designed to induce a positive change in attachment security may reduce SRBs among victims of neglect.     

Describing the context and nature of emotional maltreatment reports in children

The circumstances leading to reports of emotional maltreatment are potentially unique from those of other abuse types. This study utilized data from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), which is a federally sponsored effort requiring the submission of case-level data on all children who were subject to maltreatment investigations by state child welfare agencies. The central aims of this study were to examine case-level characteristics of sole occurrences of emotional maltreatment Child Protective Service (CPS) reports in an effort to address how caregiver and child risk correlates affect the substantiation of these allegations. A cluster analysis was performed to explore how the risk assessment factors grouped together; secondarily, the cluster groupings were examined in a logistic regression model to measure factors associated with substantiation of these abuse reports. Four unique clusters emerged, with one cluster absent any risk assessment factors entirely and another cluster solely composed of domestic violence. Caregiver risk factors with the highest odds of predicting report substantiation included caregiver substance abuse, domestic violence, and caregiver learning disabilities.     

Single mothers,the role of fathers,and the risk for child maltreatment

Single motherhood has long been linked to the risk for child maltreatment. However, little is known about the role of fathers in buffering mothers' risk for child maltreatment. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, this paper investigates (1) the ways in which non-resident fathers' economic contributions and involvement in parenting may moderate associations between mothers' transitions to being single and the risk for child maltreatment, and (2) whether these processes vary by race/ethnicity. Results indicate that mothers' transitions to being single are not strongly associated with the risk for child abuse. However, mothers' transitions to being single are associated with an increase in the risk for child neglect, and this is moderated by non-resident father involvement. Last, Black but not other mothers' transitions to being single are associated with the risk for child abuse, and are largely not moderated by non-resident father involvement.     

The effect of experience of childhood abuse among university students on self-perception and submissive behavior

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of experience of childhood abuse among university students on self-perception and submissive behavior.

Methods

The study group consisted of 646 students attending various departments of the Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Education in Trabzon, Turkey. Participants were administered the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, the Social Comparison Scale and the Submissive Acts Scale in a classroom setting.

Results

Analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between self-perception and all forms of abuse (physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse and neglect), and a positive correlation between submissive behavior and all forms of abuse. The students' emotional abuse and neglect scores varied significantly according to gender, with males having higher emotional abuse and neglect scores than those of girls. Additionally, males had higher physical abuse scores than girls.

Conclusion

Childhood abuse emerged as a significant predictor of negative self-perception and submissive behavior. In addition, with the exception of sexual abuse, other forms of abuse vary according to gender. The experiences of childhood abuse may have a long-term impact on various features of character and behavior.     

Does changing mandated reporting laws improve child maltreatment reporting in large U.S. counties?

The effects of changes in mandated child maltreatment reporting laws have not been systematically evaluated. To better understand the effects of these changes, the objectives of the present study are: (1) to assess the relationships between report rates and state universal and clergy reporting laws in 2010; (2) to compare the changes in total, confirmed, and maltreatment type report rates and with changes in reporting laws from 2000 to 2010, and (3) to examine whether there is any relationship with report rates and the nature of the mandated reporting law change. We used county-level data from the U.S. National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System for the years 2000 and 2010 to evaluate changes in reporting rates for total reports, confirmed reports, and confirmed maltreatment types while controlling for concurrent changes in child and community variables. We found that trends in 2010 for increased total and confirmed reports were similar to 2000 for counties with universal and/or clergy reporting requirements, which significantly contributed to report rates even after controlling for child and community factors. Universal reporting was associated with higher report rates for physical and sexual abuse, and clergy reporting requirements were associated with more sexual abuse, medical neglect and psychological maltreatment confirmed reports. However, while counties in states that changed their clergy reporting laws had higher increases in total reports, they had fewer confirmed physical and sexual abuse, neglect, and psychological maltreatment reports. More pronounced changes were noted in a state that made more pronounced changes in its clergy reporting laws. Policymakers should consider whether changing requirements for mandated reporting meaningfully improves child maltreatment identification.     

Why should child welfare pay more attention to emotional maltreatment?

A significant body of research indicates that emotional maltreatment (EMT) is harmful to children, resulting in long-term negative impacts on emotional and behavioral development. The child welfare system's focus on physical abuse, physical neglect, and sexual abuse has led a relative lack of attention to EMT. Reported rates of EMT vary widely across states – ranging from 0.2% to 44.9% in a recent national report on child maltreatment – indicating that it is not being measured consistently. This paper uses data collected by the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) to (1) describe the nature and characteristics of emotional maltreatment experienced by 846 LONGSCAN youth across time, and (2) describe the relation between four subtypes of emotional maltreatment (psychological safety and security, acceptance and self-esteem, autonomy, and restriction) and child trauma symptoms and risk behaviors at age 18. Exposure to EMT was related to increased trauma symptoms and risky behaviors. EMT is common, identifiable, harmful, and potentially preventable; and a better understanding of it will help to inform the provision of effective child welfare and mental health services to children and their families. Findings suggest a need for greater understanding of parental behaviors, and the motivations behind them, that result in emotionally harmful outcomes for children, as well as a better understanding of appropriate interventions for children who experience various types of EMT.     

Multisystemic Therapy for Child Abuse and Neglect: Do Parents Show Improvement in Parental Mental Health Problems and Parental Stress?

Multisystemic Therapy for Child Abuse and Neglect (MST-CAN) is an evidence-based program for families with children who experience maltreatment. This clinical trial is the first evaluation of MST-CAN in a German-speaking area. Parental psychological problems and parental stress have been shown to be risk factors for child abuse and neglect. By the end of treatment, parents reported significantly less psychological distress than before the start of MST-CAN. Six months after treatment, this reduction was still evident. However, parents did not report any significant reduction of parental stress at any of the three time points. MST-CAN is an effective intervention for child maltreatment that not only combats child abuse and neglect but also has the potential to alleviate parental psychological distress.