The development of an Internalized Homonegativity Inventory for gay men

Because existing scales measuring internalized homonegativity suffer from various content validity flaws, a more valid instrument is needed. The purpose of this study was to develop and provide preliminary reliability and validity evidence for the Internalized Homonegativity Inventory (IHNI), which measures internalized homonegativity in gay men. Forty-two items were initially generated from a construct definition and were administered to 241 gay men living in the U.S. Exploratory factor analyses suggested that 23 items loaded on 3 subscales, which were labeled Personal Homonegativity, Gay Affirmation, and Morality of Homosexuality. IHNI scores correlated in expected directions and magnitude with measures of extroversion, emotional stability, stage of gay identity development, and another internalized homonegativity instrument. Implications of the three-factor structure of the IHNI for the conceptualization of internalized homonegativity are discussed.     

Emotional Reactions of Heterosexual Men to Gay Imagery

Studies of homonegativity in the general population typically use scales to examine the attitudes of a heterosexual sample toward gay men and lesbian women. However, these scales fail to address that accepting gay and lesbian people in theory is not tantamount to accepting the sexual practices engaged in by gay and lesbian people. As a result, relying on homonegativity scales and hypothetical scenarios (i.e., asking a participant to imagine a gay man or lesbian woman from personality characteristics provided) may not offer a complete view of the complexities of homonegativity. To explore this possibility, 83 men self-identifying as either largely or exclusively heterosexual rated one of three groups of images (romantic gay, erotic gay, and control) on the basis of five questions related to their emotional responses. A psychometrically sound homonegativity scale was also completed. Results indicated that homonegativity was a significant predictor of decreased happiness, anger, disgust, task enjoyment, and reported liking of the imagery. Furthermore, homonegativity was found to moderate the association between exposure to the romantic images and four of the five emotional responses (happiness, anger, disgust, and liking). Exposure to the set of erotic gay images, however, was associated with negative emotional responses, regardless of participants’ self-reported level of homonegativity (i.e., overt homonegativity possessed less moderational power for this type of imagery). These findings suggest that standard scales of homonegative attitudes may be unable to capture the affective negativity that heterosexual men experience when viewing gay male intimacy.     

Discomfort With Homosexuality: A New Measure Captures Differences in Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians

This study describes a creative and psychometrically sound method that allows researchers to measure homonegativity at a lower threshold than existing measures and to differentiate between homonegativity toward gay men and lesbians. Four hundred and thirty-one undergraduate students at a Western comprehensive university were asked to respond to a series of vignettes describing situations in which heterosexuals sometimes experience discomfort in the presence of homosexuals, indicating the degree to which they would feel comfortable or uncomfortable. The 12-item Homonegativity as Discomfort Scale (HADS) has adequate alpha reliability (.92) as well as good criterion and construct validity. Suggestions are made as to how the measure could be employed in research. Testing on this sample shows greater discomfort with gay men than with lesbians and greater discomfort among men than among women.     

A Meta-Analytic Review of the Association Between Disgust and Prejudice Toward Gay Men

ABSTRACT

A sizeable number of studies have documented a relationship between heterosexual persons’ experience of disgust (measured as an individual difference variable or induced experimentally) and prejudice toward gay men (i.e., homonegativity). Yet, to date, no one has attempted to meta-analytically review this corpus of research. We address this gap by conducting a meta-analysis of published and unpublished work examining heterosexual men and women’s disgust and their homonegativity toward gay men. Fourteen articles (12 published, two unpublished) containing 17 studies were analyzed (N = 7,322). The average effect size for disgust sensitivity studies was moderate to large (d = 0.64), whereas for disgust induction studies, the effect was large (d = 0.77). No evidence of effect size heterogeneity emerged. Future directions and recommendations for methodological improvements are outlined.     

Internalized Homonegativity,Sense of Belonging,and Depressive Symptoms Among Australian Gay Men

Internalized homonegativity has been directly linked to depression among gay men. The aim of the study was to test whether internalized homonegativity is indirectly related to depressive symptoms via a sense of belonging to the broad gay community, gay groups, gay friends, and the general community. A sample of 246 self-identified Australian gay men, aged 18–82 years, completed the Internalized Homophobia Scale, the Psychological subscale of the Sense of Belonging Instrument, the Sense of Belonging Within Gay Communities Scale, and the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Results indicated that the final model was an excellent fit to the data. Internalized homonegativity was indirectly related to depressive symptoms via sense of belonging to gay groups, with gay friends, and to the general community. Interventions aimed at reducing internalized homonegativity among gay men have the potential to enhance sense of belonging and, in turn, decrease depressive symptoms.     

“We’re Disgusted With Queers,not Fearful of Them”: The Interrelationships Among Disgust,Gay Men’s Sexual Behavior,and Homonegativity

ABSTRACT

Using a combination of personal reflections, published literature, and original empirical research, we argue that the disgust triggered by gay men’s sexual practices (specifically, anal intercourse) is a critical, though overlooked, contributor to heterosexual men and women’s homonegativity (i.e., negative attitudes and behaviors directed toward men who are or are perceived to be gay). We conclude our article by articulating several directions for future inquiry that we believe will advance current understanding of prejudice and discrimination directed toward gay men.     

Affective Responses to Gay Men Using Facial Electromyography: Is There a Psychophysiological “Look” of Anti-Gay Bias

ABSTRACT

Despite a wealth of attitudinal studies that elucidate the psychological correlates of anti-gay bias, studies that provide evidence of the physiological correlates of anti-gay bias remain relatively scarce. The present study addresses the under-representation of physiological research in the area of homonegativity by examining psychophysiological markers, namely the affective manifestations of anti-gay prejudice, and their correspondence with anti-gay behavior. Facial electromyography (EMG) was the technique used to acquire the psychophysiological markers via recordings from two facial muscle sites. Whether heterosexual men’s implicit affective reactions to gay male couples best predicted their overt and covert discriminatory behavior toward a presumed gay male confederate was determined. The strength of the implicit affective reactions to predict anti-gay discrimination was then tested against the strength of participants’ implicit cognitive reactions acquired via the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Results indicated that the affective reactions recorded via facial EMG emerged as the strongest predictor of discrimination toward gay men compared to the cognitive reactions recorded using the IAT. Findings support the contention that emotional reactions to gay men using implicit techniques such as facial EMG are potentially valuable pathways toward understanding the nature and sequelae of anti-gay behavior.     

Development and validation of a scale measuring modern prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women

This paper describes the psychometric properties of the Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS), which measures contemporary negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians (i.e., attitudes not based on traditional or moral objections to homosexuality). In Study 1 (N = 353), a preliminary version of the MHS was developed, and its psychometric properties were examined. Participants in Studies 2 and 3 (Ns = 308 and 233, respectively) completed the MHS and other attitudinal measures. The relationships among these variables were investigated to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the scale's construct validity. In Study 4 (N = 36), a behavioural expression of modern homonegativity was examined using the attributional ambiguity paradigm. The results of these studies indicate that the MHS is unidimensional, possesses a high degree of internal consistency, and is factorially distinct from a measure of old-fashioned homonegativity. As hypothesized, scores on the MHS correlated positively with political conservatism, religious behaviour, religious self-schema and modern sexism, but did not correlate significantly with social desirability bias. In addition, the MHS appears to be less susceptible to floor effects than a commonly used measure of old-fashioned homonegativity. Finally, the experimental study revealed that participants obtaining high scores on the MHS were less likely to sit beside individuals wearing T-shirts with pro-gay or pro-lesbian slogans when they could justify their seating choice on nonprejudicial grounds.     

Gendered egos: attitude functions and gender as predictors of homonegativity

This study used a correlational design with a sample of university students to clarify the relationships between attitude functions and homonegativity with respect to gender. Classic work on attitude functions posits that attitudes serve psychological needs for the attitude holder. Herek (1986b) adapted this theory to explain attitudes toward homosexuality. Herek (1987) identified four functions: ego-defensive (defense of threats to the self), value-expressive (expression of key values), social-expressive (expression of important social norms), and experiential (based on past experiences). Results suggested that men were more likely to attribute their attitudes to the ego-defensive function. Men and women were equally likely to attribute their attitudes to the experiential function. The ego-defensive function was the best predictor of homonegativity for men and women, whether they held generally positive or generally negative attitudes toward homosexuality. The experiential function did not predict homonegativity. Participants tended to be neither very homonegative nor very ego-defensive.     

Gendered Egos: Attitude Functions and Gender as Predictors of Homonegativity

This study used a correlational design with a sample of university students to clarify the relationships between attitude functions and homonegativity with respect to gender. Classic work on attitude functions posits that attitudes serve psychological needs for the attitude holder. Herek (1986b) adapted this theory to explain attitudes toward homosexuality. Herek (1987) identified four functions: ego-defensive (defense of threats to the self), value-expressive (expression of key values), social-expressive (expression of important social norms), and experiential (based on past experiences). Results suggested that men were more likely to attribute their attitudes to the ego-defensive function. Men and women were equally likely to attribute their attitudes to the experiential function. The ego-defensive function was the best predictor of homonegativity for men and women, whether they held generally positive or generally negative attitudes toward homosexuality. The experiential function did not predict homonegativity. Participants tended to be neither very homonegative nor very ego-defensive.     

Cultural Capital and Attitudes Toward Homosexuals: Exploring the Relation Between Lifestyles and Homonegativity

This article explores the potential of cultural capital as explanatory factor in understanding homonegativity. Building on recent findings suggesting the need for a cultural component in understanding homonegativity, this article explores the relation between lifestyles (the measurable expression of cultural capital) and homonegativity. Using the “Social-Cultural Changes in Flanders 2006” survey (a population-wide survey in Flanders, the northern part of Belgium), we observed that homonegativity is lowest in lifestyle clusters where cultural capital is higher. This effect, furthermore, is maintained even after controlling for other homonegativity correlates. These results suggest that cultural capital, expressed by lifestyles, is a valuable addition to the understanding of homonegativity.     

HIV Risk Among Men Who Have Sex with Men Only (MSMO) and Men Who Have Sex with Men and Women (MSMW) in Baltimore

Men who have sex with men and women (MSMW) are at high risk for HIV. However, the majority of research on populations of men who have sex with men (MSM) combines MSMW and men who have sex with men only (MSMO) samples, which limits our understanding of HIV risk behaviors and factors associated with HIV risk among MSMW populations. We used the BESURE-MSM2, a venue-based cross-sectional study of HIV risk behaviors among MSM in Baltimore, MD, to examine HIV risk among MSMW. MSMW were less likely to report unprotected receptive anal intercourse than MSMO (6.8% vs. 19.6%, p = .0024). Among MSMW, 43.0% reported unprotected sex with a woman in the past year, but only 19.4% reported unprotected sex with both men and women, representing only 5.0% of the total MSM sample. In multivariate analyses, we found that among MSMW having unprotected sex with women in the past year, disclosing same sex behavior and having a main female partner were associated with unprotected anal intercourse with male partners. HIV prevention programs for MSMW are needed that address the complex partnerships of MSMW and the social contextual factors within which relationships and behaviors are embedded.     

“Ghosts From the Past”: The Re-Emergence of Internalized Religious Stigma Following Diagnosis of HIV Among Northern Irish Gay Men

ABSTRACT

This article explores how previous exposure to religious homonegativity features in the sense-making process following HIV diagnosis in a homogenous sample of six gay men living in Northern Ireland. Interpretive phenomenological analysis was used to identify two key overarching themes: Negotiating authenticity in unsafe space, which relates to the experience of negotiating same-sex attraction within religious environments, and Re-emergence of religious shame in diagnosis, which relates to the way in which the men made sense of diagnosis from the position of having been exposed to religious homonegativity earlier in their lives. Findings demonstrate how the men negotiated their sexual orientation within religious contexts and how a reconstruction of God was necessary to preserve an authentic sense of self. Despite reaching reconciliation, HIV was initially appraised within a retributive religious framework that served to temporarily reinforce previously learned shame-based models of understanding this aspect of the self.     

Ambivalent Homoprejudice towards Gay Men: Theory Development and Validation

ABSTRACT

Myriad social groups are targets of hostile and benevolent (i.e., ambivalent) prejudice. However, prejudice toward gay men is typically conceptualized as hostile, despite the prevalence of benevolence toward gay men in popular media. This article aims to compare gay men with other targets of ambivalent prejudice (i.e., women and elderly people) and draw on the stereotype content and microaggressions literatures in order to develop a theory of ambivalent homoprejudice. The resultant framework, comprising repellent, adversarial, romanticized, and paternalistic homoprejudice was investigated using seven focus groups of heterosexuals and gay men (N = 22), and the findings were consistent with stereotype content theory. Directions for future research into the deleterious effects of ambivalent homoprejudice and possible empowering interventions are discussed.     

Attitudes of Heterosexual Men and Women Toward HIV Negative and Positive Gay Men

Attitudes of Italian heterosexual men and women toward gay men, both HIV positive and negative, are poorly investigated. Italian culture is still extremely conservative and provides limited support to the gay community (e.g., lack of same-sex marriage recognition). Consequently, gay men experience social exclusion and disparities. The present study explores the association between homophobia and closeness with sexual orientation and HIV status. 261 heterosexual Italian men and women were assessed for feelings of closeness and homophobia after reading a vignette where the character was C1: heterosexual and HIV negative; C2: gay and HIV negative; or C3: gay and HIV positive. Experiences of homophobia and closeness varied depending on gender of participant and condition assigned, and higher levels of homophobia were correlated with lower levels of closeness regardless of HIV status. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

Assessing the Gender Invariance of the Modern Homonegativity Scale

The measurement invariance of the Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS) was examined among heterosexual female (n = 449) and male (n = 329) university students who were predominantly Mexican American. The MHS demonstrated full invariance of factor loadings and partial invariance of latent intercepts. At the latent mean level, heterosexual men compared to heterosexual women held more negative attitudes toward both gay men and lesbian women. There were no latent mean differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women when rated by either heterosexual men or heterosexual women. The MHS can be used by heterosexual men and heterosexual women to assess their homonegativity.     

Internalized Homonegativity,Confucianism, and Self-Esteem at the Emergence of an LGBTQ Identity in Modern Vietnam

We examine the relationships between internalized homonegativity, Confucianism, and self-esteem among LGBTQ adults who grew up during the Open Door Policy, or ??i M?i, in Vietnam. Participants were identified via activist networks and social media groups. They completed online survey focused on internalized homo/transphobia, self-esteem, and Confucian values. The study revealed that more exposure to Confucian values in early life is related to higher levels of internalized homonegativity. Male-born participants also had a higher level of internalized homonegativity than female-born participants. In general, lower levels of self-esteem were also related to higher levels of internalized homonegativity. We discuss the implications of these findings in light of conflicting values between Confucianism and the economic and social transformation that has occurred under ??i M?i.     

Social Responsibility,Substance Use,and Sexual Risk Behavior in Men Who Have Sex With Men

Considerable public health literature focuses on relationships between problematic human characteristics (e.g., psychopathology) and unhealthy behaviors. A recent movement termed positive psychology emphasizes the advantages of assessing relationships between human strengths (e.g., altruism) and beneficial health behaviors. The present study assessed social responsibility, an orientation to help or protect others even when there is nothing to be gained as an individual, and its relationship to HIV-relevant behaviors. In our sample of 350 men who have sex with men (MSM), social responsibility was negatively correlated with substance use and HIV risk behaviors. Men who had been tested for HIV and knew their HIV status—a behavior that helps men protect their partners but does not protect themselves from the virus—also scored higher in social responsibility. Interventions designed to reduce HIV risk behavior in MSM may benefit from efforts to promote human strengths.     

The construction and validation of the homopositivity scale: an instrument measuring endorsement of positive stereotypes about gay men

Social scientists appear to focus on negative beliefs about, and attitudes toward, gay men and lesbian women. This emphasis, though understandable in view of the widespread oppression of gay and lesbian individuals, is somewhat myopic because it ignores what might be referred to as the positive dimension of stereotypes. Although such a concept may appear oxymoronic, it is widely recognized that individuals may endorse a mixture of positive and negative stereotypes toward stigmatized groups such as African Americans and women. The purpose of the current series of studies (Study 1, N = 212; Study 2, N = 105) was to devise an instrument measuring endorsement of positive stereotypes about gay men (Homopositivity Scale; HPS). Two versions of the HPS (of varying length) were evaluated, with scale scores on both appearing to be internally consistent and factorially distinct from scales measuring negative stereotypes and prejudices about gay men. These studies also suggest that females are more likely than males to endorse positive stereotypes about gay men, and that such endorsement is negatively associated with need for uniqueness and need for cognition, and positively associated with media contact and benevolent sexism. The limitations of the two studies are outlined and the importance of assessing positive stereotypes about gay men in conjunction with oft-examined homonegativity is discussed.     

Measuring Homonegativity: Psychometric Analysis of Herek’s Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale (ATLG) in Colombia,South America

The empirical study of negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian people (homonegativity) is a way to understand the reason for its prevalence. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a Spanish version of the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale (ATLG). A total of 359 undergraduate students were recruited from two different cities in Colombia, South America. Participants’ attitudes toward gays and lesbian people were assessed using the ATLG Scale and the Homophobia Scale; anxiety was measured using a short version of the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale. Internal consistency analyses have shown that the ATLG Scale is a reliable measure of homonegativity in a Colombian sample. In addition, principal components analyses, as well as convergent and divergent validity analyses have confirmed that the ATLG Scale is a valid and reliable measure of homonegativity in the Colombian context and support its use as a research instrument.