自我行动与自主经营理解中国人何以将自主经营当作其参与市场实践的首选方式

是什么决定着中国人将自主经营当作其参与市场实践的首选方式?本文的假设是,自我行动是影响和决定中国人选择自主经营这一市场实践方式的根本力量. 其中,源于自我主义的自治感是引导中国人偏爱以自主经营的方式参与市场实践的主观力量;而来自关系理性的亲友关系运作则是决定个体能否获取社会资源, 从而决定其能否实现自主经营的客观力量. 这一假设给出了有关中国私营企业成长的两个显著特征,即增长迅速,但其组织规模偏小的解释,同时,也使我们得以对中国人参与市场实践的两类变通性策略行动（即合伙经营和打工）及其后果作出一种延伸性的解释.     

Is the Disposition of Constrained Maximization Chosen Rationally?

One of the most important issues in moral philosophy is whether morality can be justified by rationality. The purpose of this study is to examine Gauthier’s moral theory, focusing on the disposition of constrained maximization, which is the main thrust of his project to justify morality rationally. First of all, I shall investigate Gauthier’s assumption and condition for the rationality of the disposition of constrained maximization so as to disclose that the disposition of constrained maximization is not necessarily chosen by rational agents. Then I shall explore his other arguments including ones for the reinterpretation of rationality and the self-critical reflection of rational beings, which can be considered as his further efforts to make the disposition of constrained maximization a rational choice. By exploring them, I shall attempt to indicate that those arguments are not valid so long as he clings to the maximizing conception of rationality and thereby this conception of rationality itself is not enough to provide morality with a basis.     

Behavioral patterns and reduction of sub-optimality: an experimental choice analysis

This paper attempts to identify behavioral patterns and compare their average success considering several criteria of bounded rationality. Experimentally observed choice behavior in various decision tasks is used to assess heterogeneity in how individual participants respond to 15 randomly ordered portfolio choices, each of which is experienced twice. Treatments differ in (not) granting probability information and in (not) eliciting aspirations. Since in our setting neither other regarding concerns nor risk attitude matter and probability of the binary chance move is (optimal) choice irrelevant, categorizing decision types relies on parameter dependence and choice adaptations. We find that most participants reduce systematically sub-optimality when following the identified criteria.     

Individual rationality and the concept of social welfare

This paper, written in October 1974, deals with some game aspects of the social choice problem. The question asked is whether there exists a social decision rule satisfying the conditions imposed by Arrow over all the preference profiles that may logically arise under it (in the sense of being compatible with individual rationality). This question is answered in the affirmative. The meaning of this result is that if Arrow's condition of unrestricted domain is modified so as to exclude any profile which contradicts individual rationality, then an Arrovian social welfare function can be shown to exist (subject to the assumption that whenever the social outcome is in doubt, individuals use the maximin criterion in order to choose their voting strategy).This research was written up in October 1974 at Northwestern University and was partially supported by the National Science Foundation.     

农民“种房”的行动理性——对W市S村的个案研究

本研究考察郊区城市化过程中的“种房风”现象，选取了W市近郊一个行政村为个案，进行田野调查，主要以访谈法，辅之以观察法和文献法来收集资料；从“种房”现象主体主观的角度，考察农民“种房”成风的原因。研究发现：农民“种房”是非现实需要的行动选择；选择“种房”主要是基于超额补偿效用，也有经营和增加收入效用、心理平衡效用、情感归属效用；农民“种房”行动是主观上的目的理性行动，且有形式理性和实质理性的特征；而农民“种房”行动理性的诱因是种种政府因素，这是种房现象成风的根本内在原因。本研究的结论认为，更深层关注和研究的问题是政府应如何调整自身的行为。     

The chain store paradox

The chain store game is a simple game in extensive form which produces an inconsistency between game theoretical reasoning and plausible human behavior. Well-informed players must be expected to disobey game theoretical recommendations.The chain store paradox throws new light on the well-known difficulties arising in connection with finite repetitions of the prisoners dilemma game. Whereas these difficulties can be resolved by the assumption of secondary utilities arising in the course of playing the game, a similar approach to the chain store paradox is less satisfactory.It is argued that the explanation of the paradox requires a limited rationality view of human decision behavior. For this purpose a three-level theory of decision making is developed, where decisions can be made on different levels of rationality. This theory explains why insight into the rational solution of a decision problem does not necessarily mean that the corresponding course of action will be taken.     

Freedom and Rationality

The question discussed in the present paper is whether actions that are free can be thought of as rational. According to one view, no free action could be rational. According to another, all free actions must be rational. I argue that both these positions are false and that there is no necessary connection between freedom and rationality. Some free actions are rational, others are not.     

Illustrating behavioral principles with examples from demography: the causal analysis of differences in fertility

This article evaluates the 3 general frames of reference used in analyzing the nonphysiologic origins of fertility differences: utility, normative, and drift. It is suggested that the drift model overcomes some of the limitations of the other 2 models and provides a closer approximation to behavioral realities. Implicit in the utility model is the assumption that people's behavior expresses their preferences amony available alternatives. It is further assumed that the individual has available a range of possible behaviors, means to the atgtainment of behavioral goals chosen, and reliable information concerning the likely consequences of a given choice. A weakness of this approach has been its rather parochial concentration on economic costs and benefits and its failure to take account of the ways these costs and benefits are differentially assessed and weighted by different populations. The normative model emphasizes the individual's group affiliations and social roles. A criticism of this model is that it ignores the possibility of conflict among the different norms associated with an individual's various roles or among interacting individuals such as husbands and wives. Together, the utility and normative models imply the existence of more conscious rationality in human behavior than may actually be the case. The 3rd model, drift, emphasizes the ongoing, developmental, incemental nature of human behavior. It posits a behavior that begins almost by accident at some point within the range of possible and allowable behaviors, then moves toward conslusion in a manner largely imperceptible to the actor. The idea of drift is compatible with the observation that social structures are constantly changed while at the same time providing the framework within which reproducing and changing behaviors can unfold. In contrast to the utility and normative models, which tend to be static, the drift model emphasizes both change and the manner in which change takes place.     

Culture and the Explanation of Choice behavior

This paper shows how alternative, culturally-determined motivational forces can be substituted for self-interest or rationality in the theory of choice. Several possibilities are considered, including the replacement of preference optimization by such propellants as the selection of the `second best' or the `central' option. It is argued that although all choice behavior, even that consistent with the alternatives considered, can ultimately be understood as satisfying the criterion of rationality, richer and more meaningful explanation is obtained by focusing on culturally significant alternative motivations when the latter turn out, in particular environments, to be more important than self-interest.     

Rationality for Economists?

Rationality is a complex behavioral theory that can be parsed into statements about preferences, perceptions, and process. This paper looks at the evidence on rationality that is provided by behavioral experiments, and argues that most cognitive anomalies operate through errors in perception that arise from the way information is stored, retrieved, and processed, or through errors in process that lead to formulation of choice problems as cognitive tasks that are inconsistent at least with rationality narrowly defined. The paper discusses how these cognitive anomalies influence economic behavior and measurement, and their implications for economic analysis.     

Norms and rationality. Is moral behavior a form of rational action?

This article addresses major arguments in the controversy about the “rationality” of moral behavior: can moral behavior be explained by rational choice theory (RCT)? The two positions discussed are the incentives thesis (norms are incentives as any other costs and benefits) and the autonomy thesis claiming that moral behavior has nothing to do with utility. The article analyses arguments for the autonomy thesis by J. Elster, A. Etzioni, and J. G. March and J. P. Olsen. Finally, the general claim is discussed whether norm following and norm emergence are utility maximizing. The conclusion is that the autonomy thesis is not tenable if one applies a wide subjectivist, social psychological version of RCT that includes the assumption of “bounded rationality.” The autonomy thesis is only compatible with a narrow version of RCT that excludes internal outcomes and that refers to norms that do not have external outcomes. It is argued that such a narrow version is not capable of explaining many forms of behavior social scientists are interested in.     

Actors,legitimation and cultures of social work*

This article is based on my study of rationality and language games in social work. The study focuses on the actors of social welfare and health care. Included are the heads and social workers of public welfare and health care agencies and institutions, officials of voluntary organizations, and activists in social change-oriented action groups. The objects of this study also differ with respect of their official status, area of responsibility, and position at work. The study tries to increase the understanding of the basic rationalities which are guiding social work as part of the daily routines, and of how the actors articulate and legitimate themselves, one another and the others, i.e. clients etc. The empirical data were collected using questionnaries. The study shows that organizational affiliation and area of concern do not bring about a systematic variation in the views of the respondents. The results then indicate the existence of a specific culture, a code of social work. The actors legitimate themselves according to system rationality. The system is considered to be outside the immediate scene of social work practice, which is articulated according to life-world premises. In client-centered social work, the external controlling and administrating system rationality threatens life-world aspects by neglecting social work as a process based on involvement, dialogue and change.     

血亲价值观及中国老年人对非正式支持资源的选择——基于北京市老年人相关调查数据的分析

非正式支持是解决老年人问题的重要方式和资源。中国老年人在选择非正式支持资源时会受到血亲价值观的影响,在总体上表现出网络中的血亲核心性、心理中的血缘偏执性、关系中的血缘扩展性、目标中的需求综合性和交往中的伦理交换性等特点;而在具体实践上则形成了两类资源、区别性功能、递降式选择的基本模式以及不断分割非正式支持资源网络的文化特征。这种选择模式和文化特征既有利于老年人在一定程度上利用非正式支持资源,也限制了老年人对非正式支持资源的充分利用。     

Bayesian decision theory,rule utilitarianism,and Arrow's impossibility theorem

The first part of this paper reexamines the logical foundations of Bayesian decision theory and argues that the Bayesian criterion of expected-utility maximization is the only decision criterion consistent with rationality. On the other hand, the Bayesian criterion, together with the Pareto optimality requirement, inescapably entails a utilitarian theory of morality. The next sections discuss the role both of cardinal utility and of cardinal interpersonal comparisons of utility in ethics. It is shown that the utilitarian welfare function satisfies all of Arrow's social choice postulates avoiding the celebrated impossibility theorem by making use of information which is unavailable in Arrow's original framework. Finally, rule utilitarianism is contrasted with act utilitarianism and judged to be preferable for the purposes of ethical theory.     

人们如何卷入公共参与事件——基于广州市恩宁路改造中公民行动的分析

本文旨在探讨是什么使得公民卷入现实的公共参与网络,影响这种公共参与的行动力、持续性和影响力的因素是什么。基于对广州市恩宁路改造中公民参与的研究,本文发现,虚拟社区虽然拓展了人们的现实联系,因其动员的广泛性而推动了公共参与的兴起,但能否转化为现实中有影响力的持续公共参与行动还与线下的联络和动员机制及其特性密切相关：基于人际网络的联络和动员推动了公共参与行动的行动力及其持续性,开放的城市空间则为这种现实的参与行动拓展了影响力。本文对不同联络和动员机制的区分,有助于从“历时性”和“差异化参与”的角度解释公民参与在转型期中国的发展。     

On the consistency of choice

Consistency of choice is a fundamental and recurring theme in decision theory, social choice theory, behavioral economics, and psychological sciences. The purpose of this paper is to study the consistency of choice independent of the particular decision model at hand. Consistency is viewed as an inherently logical concept that is fundamentally void of connotation and is thus disentangled from traditional rationality or consistency conditions imposed on decision models. The proposed formalization of consistency takes two forms: internal consistency, which refers to the property that a choice model does not generate contradictory statements; and semantic consistency, which refers to the idea that a theory’s predictions are valid with respect to some observed data. In addressing semantic consistency, the relationship between theory and data is analyzed in terms of so-called duality mappings, which allow a passage between the two universes in a way that consistency is preserved. The formalization of consistency concepts relies on adapting the revealed preference theory to the context-dependent setting. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of the proposed framework and how it relates to classical revealed preference theory and other formalizations of the relationship between the theory and reality of choice.     

Organisational problems of motivation in family planning

Motivation -- a phenomenon of the human mind which is a product of purpose, desire, goal, perception, attitude and incentive, of emotions like anger, fear, or relationships of trust and suspicion, is an important organizational goal for implementing family planning. It must therefore concern itself with strategies of improvement of the recipient of the services through participation and proper communication techniques. After a need is generated, tension is created and a drive toward satisfaction begins. The organization must provide the alternatives of choosing an action which will help satisfaction of the individual and organizational needs harmoniously.     

德国马克的国际化路径研究——兼论对人民币国际化的启示

1980年代到1990年代马克成为仅次于美元的国际货币,从其货币国际化的进程可以发现,马克的国际化从根本上取决于德国战后经济实力的上升以及马克的稳定性,但欧洲货币一体化过程中马克的中心地位从制度上大大推进了马克的国际化。可以说马克的国际化是从马克的区域化开始的。目前已经出现了促进人民币国际化的历史契机。马克的国际化进程,为人民币国际化的路径选择提供了有价值的经验,先区域化再国际化,应该是人民币国际化的一条可行路径。     

Analysis of Intertemporal Choice: A New Framework and Experimental Results

This paper reports the results of a series of experiments examining intertemporal choice. The paper makes three contributions: First, it presents a new analytic device, the intertemporal choice triangle, which is analogous to the Marschak--Machina choice triangle used in the analysis of choice under risk. Second, we have developed a new experimental design based on the intertemporal choice triangle which allows subjects greater flexibility in making choices, and which allows the researcher to make more subtle inferences, than are possible with designs previously employed. Subjects are able to create their most-preferred outcome in each choice situation by choosing a constrained linear combination of two extreme options. Third, our results show that while subjects do not typically maximize present value, they are significantly influenced break by present value considerations. We refer to this finding as it present value-seeking behavior. We find only weak evidence of several previously documented intertemporal choice anomalies in our framework.