Measurement of Race and Ethnicity in a Changing, Multicultural America

It is well accepted that concepts of race, ethnicity, and ancestry are changing constructs that reflect the social, economic, and political climate of the times. Studying the history of the collection of data on race, place of birth, Hispanic origin, and ancestry in US decennial censuses provides a better understanding of the race and ethnic concepts currently in use for official federal statistics. This history can help guide the evolution of these concepts for research on alternative measurement approaches, future censuses, and future statistics. The purpose of this paper is threefold. The first objective is to provide a historical overview of race and ethnic measurement in US decennial censuses. The second and third objectives are to present Census Bureau plans to experiment with alternative approaches to measuring race and ethnicity in the 2010 Census and to discuss race and ethnic measurement issues for future decennial censuses.     

Adolescent-Rated Health and Intention to Attend College: Variation by Race/Ethnicity and Levels of Health Status

Quantify the relationships between adolescent self-reported health and college intention in a diverse sample including Asians. Data were used from 3,737 adolescents ages 12–17 who completed the 2003 California Health Interview Survey. Self-reported intention to attend college/university was compared to other plans. Multivariate logistic models predicting college intention by health status (poor/fair, good, or very good/excellent) were performed with the entire sample and for each race/ethnicity separately. Age, poverty, gender, rural residence, and parental college education were controlled. Participants were 44 % white, 36 % Hispanic, 11 % Asian, and 9 % black. Overall, 10 % reported poor/fair health, 30 % good health, and 60 % very good/excellent health. Whites were the most likely to report very good/excellent health and Hispanics least likely (χ²(6) = 11.85; p < 0.01). Eighty-one percent had college plans, which also varied by race/ethnicity with Asians most likely to report college intentions and Hispanics least likely (χ²(3) = 3.97; p < 0.05). In the overall multivariate model, adolescents in poor/fair health (OR: 0.53; 95 % CI: 0.34–0.83) and good health (OR: 0.59; 95 % CI: 0.45–0.78) were significantly less likely to plan on college compared to those in very good/excellent health. Variation was seen by racial/ethnic group. For whites and blacks, only good health significantly predicted less college intention (compared to very good/excellent health) while only poor/fair health significantly predicted less college intention for Hispanics and Asians. Very good/excellent health in adolescence was associated with greater college intention compared to both fair/poor health and good health, but this relationship varied by race/ethnicity.     

Navigating Americanized Identities: Bicultural Ethnicity,Race, and the Incorporation Experience

This paper reports on the complex ways in which immigrant young adults make sense of their Americanized ethnic and racial identities. The analysis draws on a large set of in-depth interviews (N?=?233) collected with immigrants between the ages of 18 and 29 across three regions in the US (California, New York, and Minnesota) in the early 2000s and is in dialogue with emerging new theories of immigrant incorporation which combine the insights of traditional assimilation and racialization frameworks. The identity narratives that emerge from these interviews demonstrate the overarching significance of racial and ethnic identification for young adults across various immigrant communities. The narratives also highlight some of the contextual factors involved in the construction of an ethnic identity in the US such as experiences with discrimination; or the presence of co-ethnic communities. The final substantive section explores how young American immigrants in the transition to adulthood attempt to cultivate hybrid, bicultural identities that balance their American-ness with the ongoing experience of living in a deeply racialized society. The paper concludes by discussing implications for the literature on identity formation and the transition to adulthood as well as on the immigrant incorporation experience.     

Distribution,Composition and Exclusion: How School Segregation Impacts Racist Disciplinary Patterns

This paper investigates a broad two-pronged social problem: the persistent segregation and fragmentation of school districts alongside the disproportionate application of school discipline to students of color. Previous work suggests many factors within schools that contribute to the unequal application of school discipline. We use hierarchical linear modeling to move beyond this immediate school context and ask how broader social processes, specifically multiple forms of school segregation, impact the disproportionate discipline administered to black students in secondary schools. Results demonstrate that schools located in more segregated districts tend to have lower racial disparities in suspensions for black students, thus painting a complex picture of the consequences of segregated schooling for students of color. The findings suggest that racial inequality can arise in many guises and that efforts to create racially integrated schools do not release districts from other important work related to racial equity. Integrated school districts should be even more concerned with creating policies and practices to raise awareness of and reduce racial disparities, specifically in school discipline.     

Race,Wealth and Incarceration: Results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

Using the 1979 cohort of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth to explore the interwoven links between race, wealth and incarceration, this study examines the data on race and wealth status before and after incarceration. Data indicate that although higher levels of wealth were associated with lower rates of incarceration, the likelihood of future incarceration still was higher for blacks at every level of wealth compared to the white likelihood, as well as the Hispanic likelihood, which fell below the white likelihood for some levels of wealth. Further, we find that racial wealth gaps existed among those who would be incarcerated in the future and also among the previously incarcerated.     

The Joint Effects of Offender Race/Ethnicity and Sex on Sentence Length Decisions in Federal Courts

The current study examined the main and interactive effects of offender race/ethnicity and sex on sentence length decisions for drug offenders convicted in three federal courts located in Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska. The additive model showed that females received shorter prison sentences than similarly situated male offenders, but there were no differences between white offenders and minority offenders. However, when the data were partitioned by sex, black males were found to receive lengthier prison terms than white males. There were no differences between white males and Hispanic males, and white females were treated no differently than either black or Hispanic females. Moreover, when the data were partitioned by race/ethnicity, white females were treated no differently than white males. However, black females received shorter sentences than black males and Hispanic females received shorter sentences than Hispanic males. Further analyses showed that black and Hispanic males also received longer sentences than white females and that black males received longer sentences than all other offenders (with the exception of Hispanic male offenders). These findings mesh with those gleaned from other sentencing studies, although they are at odds with theoretical notions that leniency at the sentencing stage is reserved only for white women.     

Race and Child Welfare Policy: State-Level Variations in Disproportionality

African American children are represented among those housed in foster care at more than twice the rate of their overall representation in the US population. This racial disproportionality is well known among child welfare researchers, who have been attempting to explain the phenomenon. Are African American families under more surveillance than white families because of involvement with TANF and other government aid programs, resulting in higher rates of foster care placements? Are investigators more likely to pursue allegations of abuse within African American families? Are African American children more likely to suffer from maltreatment? My research makes a unique contribution by investigating state-level variations in child welfare policy outcomes. Following the innovative work of Soss et al. (American Journal of Political Science 52(3):536–553, 2008) who find that states with larger African American populations have more stringent welfare regimes, it would be reasonable to expect that states with larger African American populations would have more aggressive child protection policies, resulting in higher numbers of children being housed in state protective custody. This work exposes a strikingly different pattern: States with larger African American populations are distinctly less likely to take children into protective custody. In addition, states with larger African American populations have dramatically lower levels of racial disproportionality among their children in foster care. States with larger white majorities place more children in foster care and place disproportionately higher percentages of African American children in foster care.     

College as an Investment: The Role of Graduation Rates in Changing Occupational Inequality by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender

In this paper, we examine whether investments in higher education have contributed to changes in occupational inequality by focusing on the impact of college completion rates on movement into desirable occupations between 1983 and 2002. Since forces generating inequality vary by gender, race, and ethnicity, we examine trends for white, black, and Hispanic men and women in our study. Utilizing Ordinary Least Squares Regression on data from 20 Current Population Surveys, we find a modest decrease in both gender and racial inequality in access to desirable occupations and an increase in inequality between Hispanics and members of the other groups. College completion accounts for the progress made by white women and for the declines among Hispanic men. It does not explain changes for African Americans, either between men and women or when compared to whites.     

Diverse Muslims in a Racialized Landscape: Race,Ethnicity and Islamophobia in the American City of Milwaukee,Wisconsin

Studying the racially and ethnically diverse Muslim minority population in any US city must take into account the racialized landscape prevailing in the city. Milwaukee is a highly racially segregated city, where residential patterns have been shaped by decades of immigration by various ethnic and racial groups, and by restrictions on residential housing, as well as industrialization, deindustrialization and suburbanization. This paper presents findings of an ethnographic research along with the results of a household survey of Muslims in Milwaukee in the context of Milwaukee's urban landscape. Muslims in Milwaukee are racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse. Their patterns of residence and of worship suggest the influence of not only segregation and the typical patterns of ethnic immigration but also clustering and dispersal. Patterns of residences also show the influence of not only Muslim leadership and organization but also of the racialized landscape of the city. Our survey provides a portrait of a community negotiating racial and ethnic differences and solidarities.     

Young,Black, and (Still) in the Red: Parental Wealth,Race, and Student Loan Debt

Taking out student loans to assist with the costs of postsecondary schooling in the US has become the norm in recent decades. The debt burden young adults acquire during the higher education process, however, is increasingly stratified with black young adults holding greater debt burden than whites. Using data from the NLSY 1997 cohort, we examine racial differences in student loan debt acquisition and parental net wealth as a predictor contributing to this growing divide. We have four main results. First, confirming prior research, black young adults have substantially more debt than their white counterparts. Second, we find that this difference is partially explained by differences in wealth, family background, postsecondary educational differences, and family contributions to college. Third, young adults’ net worth explain a portion of the black–white disparity in debt, suggesting that both differences in accumulation of debt and ability to repay debt in young adulthood explain racial disparities in debt. Fourth, the black–white disparity in debt is greatest at the highest levels of parents’ net worth. Our findings show that while social and economic experiences can help explain racial disparities in debt, the situation is more precarious for black youth, who are not protected by their parents’ wealth. This suggests that the increasing costs of higher education and corresponding rise in student loan debt are creating a new form of stratification for recent cohorts of young adults, and that student loan debt may be a new mechanism by which racial economic disparities are inherited across generations.     

印尼苏加诺政府的华侨、华人政策及其影响

1945年8月17日,印尼民族运动的领导人苏加诺和哈达签署了独立宣言,庄严宣告印尼独立。次日,印度尼西亚共和国成立,苏加诺、哈达分别当选为共和国的总统、副总统,印尼由此进入新的历史时期。本文旨在研究印尼苏加诺政府时期(1945—1965年)的华侨、华人政策及其影响,进而探讨这一时期印尼华侨、华人社会的发展状况。一、移民政策(一)严格限制中国人入境由于苏加诺政府严格限制中国人入境,中国人难以进入印尼。以1953年1—6月为例,印尼的出境华侨为14096人,入境华侨仅8810人,出境者比入境者多5286人。①此后,印尼华侨、华人数量的增长主要依赖…     

Wealth Inequality in Black and White: Cultural and Structural Sources of the Racial Wealth Gap

Using data from the 2013 Survey of Consumer Finances, this research examines competing and complementary cultural and structural explanations of the sources of racial differences in wealth. We use OLS regression and quantile regression to identify the major individual-level sources of wealth differences between African Americans and whites. Whites have more favorable wealth characteristics than do African Americans on all of the variables in the analysis: gender of household head, bankruptcies, spending patterns, stock ownership, business ownership, home ownership, inheritance, educational attainment, income, occupation, age, and number of children. Cultural factors, having a female-headed family, spending patterns, and inheritance account for little of the racial wealth gap. Racial differences in income, stock ownership, and business ownership account for much of the explained racial wealth gap. Moreover, compared with whites, African Americans receive significantly lower wealth returns to education, age, income, stock ownership, and business ownership. We discuss the implications of our findings.     

在种族与国族之间:新加坡多元种族主义政策

本文在总结新加坡种族格局的形成的基础上,分析了该国的偶然独立造成的国族认同困境和新加坡政府40年来处理种族问题的主要政策,涉及住房、语言、教育、国防等方面。其经验和教训对中国有一定的借鉴意义。     

Diverging Fortunes: Racial/Ethnic Inequality in Wealth Trajectories in Middle and Late Life

The primary aim of this study is to examine whether racial/ethnic inequality in wealth dissipates or increases between middle and late life, and by how much. To address this aim, this study draws on critical race and life course perspectives as well as 10 waves of panel data from the Health and Retirement Study and growth curve models to understand racial/ethnic inequality in wealth trajectories among whites, blacks, and Mexican Americans (N = 8337). Findings show that, by midlife, significant inequalities in net worth emerge between whites and their black and Mexican American counterparts. On average, white households have amassed a net worth of $105k by midlife, compared to less than $5k and $39k among black and Mexican American families, respectively. Moreover, whites experience much more rapid rates of wealth accumulation during their 50s and 60s than their minority counterparts, resulting in increasing wealth disparities with age, consistent with a process of cumulative disadvantage. At the peak of their wealth trajectory (at age 66), whites have approximately $245k more than blacks and $219k more than Mexican Americans. A wide range of socioeconomic, behavioral, and health factors account for a portion, but not all, of racial/ethnic inequality in wealth, suggesting that unobserved factors such as parental wealth, segregation, and discrimination may play a role in the production and maintenance of wealth inequality.     

Race/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Microaggressions Experienced by Low-Income Parents in Three US Cities

Race and Social Problems - Previous research on microaggressive experiences has focused primarily on those based on race/ethnicity. For the present study, we examined both race/ethnic and...     

民族性与边疆性:新疆城市发展的特点

新疆自古以来就是多民族与多文化的汇聚地,其对清代及民国时期新疆城市的空间布局和建筑产生了巨大的影响,内地汉文化和新疆多民族文化在新疆城市建设过程中相互作用,形成了新的特色,即双城结构,甚至多城结构。清代民国时期新疆的多个民族和多元文化对城市居民的生活习俗也产生了重要的影响。20世纪中叶以后新疆城市民族构成及文化多元进一步发展,在城市建设、宗教、民俗等层面都产生了深远的影响。新疆的边疆性特征,使得其在军事上和边贸上的功能突出。清前中期新疆建立大批军事城市,至清末民国时期,这些城市的军事功能仍然发挥重要作用。20世纪中期以后一批兵团城市和军垦城镇出现,并得到较大的发展,"屯垦戍边"向"建城戍边"转型。     

纳若敢啸：足球、族群性与丽江男性气质的建构

通过对丽江当地青年的足球生活进行田野考察,分析少数族裔男性的个体行为与集体经验,揭示在地族群的男性气质在市场经济形态下赛事转型中的建构过程。首先,丽江足球青年借“纳若”的话语诠释,策略性地表达了族群身份,实践了“另类”男性气质及其主体性的彰显。其次,非支配地位的族群内部,生产了以“敢啸”为核心、以身体化的极致表达为途径的男性气质,再现了丽江地方性族群在市场经济进程中,过往的历史根基与现代性生活方式之间结构性的张力。     

Race and Unemployment Amidst the New Diversity: More Evidence of a Black/Non-Black Divide

The fact that the United States is more racially and ethnically diverse now than in the past has led scholars to dismiss dichotomous—black/white—conceptions of race as antiquated. However, some others have noted the emergence of a black/non-black divide that is manifest in patterns of residential segregation and intermarriage. This study attempts to determine whether such a dichotomous conception is sufficient to capture the effects of race and ethnicity on unemployment patterns among entry-level workers in the United States. Findings suggest that more than 80% of the effects of race and ethnicity on unemployment can be captured simply by knowing who is black and who is not. The most elaborate conception tested here acknowledges 20 different racial and ethnic groups; it adds significantly but not commensurately to the explanatory power of the models. Despite the increasingly diverse racial and ethnic composition of entry-level labor markets in the United States, it is black exclusion that seems to drive the effects of race and ethnicity on unemployment.     

跨族裔善财:当代仁波切与汉裔居士檀越——囊谦某新建宗教地景启示

本文以仁波切——皈依弟子为分析主线,以当代中国康北藏区囊谦精神地标阿育王塔的重建为个案,呈现了昔日由囊谦王族牵头的地方公益景观,并借由竹巴噶举派第八世阿德仁波切勾连的教派海内外网络及其汉裔皈依弟子们的供养网络得以复建的过程,对其中供养的原因以及特征进行了初步分析,提出了汉裔对藏传佛教供养所带有的福利倾向,还依据受益目标的差异,区分了藏区社会福利供养檀越和藏传僧团福利供养檀越,探索对当代藏传佛教发展中汉裔供养的恰切解释。     

中国族群研究:缘起、成就及问题

本文从缘起、成就及问题三方面对中国族群研究进行了学术梳理和论述.首先,作者回顾了1990年代"族群"(ethnic group)概念及相关理论进入中国内地学术界的背景及历程;其次,对中国族群研究取得的成就进行了评述;曩后,对中国族群研究存在的问题进行了探讨.