The Evolution of Male-Male Sexual Behavior in Humans

Abstract

This paper examines male-male sexual behavior from an evolutionary perspective. I begin with a discussion of the major difficulties associated with the scientific study of homosexuality and a clarification of some concepts in human sexuality and evolutionary psychology. Following is a presentation of several established evolutionary theories of homosexuality and a critique of their major assumptions. Based on common patterns of male-male sexual behavior in humans identified by anthropologists, I argue that the evolutionary origin of male-male sexual behavior is based on the same dominance-submission mechanisms that gave rise to male-female sexual behavior. Further, I argue that male-male sexual behavior evolved more fully in human males than in other primate males because male-male alliances played a greater role in human male reproductive success. Specifically, male-male sexual behavior is speculated to be an exaptation of the sociosexual behavior used by primates to establish, regulate, and maintain relationships. It is posited that same-sex sexual behavior in human males reinforced alliances that contributed directly to male survival and indirectly to male reproduction. This alliance theory of the evolution of male-male sexual behavior is compatible with broader current theory on human evolution. The same neurological mechanism theorized to be involved in male-female sexual attraction and behavior is purported to mediate male-male sexual attraction and behavior. Finally, I argue that exclusive same-sex attraction in human males is due to an interaction between genetic, cultural, developmental and psychological factors. doi:10.1300/J056v18n04_02     

Childhood Sexual Experiences and Adult Health Sequelae Among Gay and Bisexual Men: Defining Childhood Sexual Abuse

Gay and bisexual men carry the burden of HIV infections in the United States and have high rates of childhood sexual abuse that predict HIV and other health outcomes. This study examined differential effects of forced, consensual, and no childhood sexual experiences (CSE) on health outcomes among a probability sample of adult men who have sex with men (MSM). The forced sex group had the highest levels of psychological distress, substance use, and HIV risk. There were no differences in rates of depression and suicidal ideation between the consensual- and no-sex groups. The consensual- and forced-sex groups had higher rates of substance use and transmission risk than the no-sex group. The forced-sex group, however, had significantly higher rates of frequent drug use and high-risk sex than the consensual group. Findings suggest that forced CSEs result in a higher-risk profile than consensual or no childhood sexual experiences, the kind of risk pattern differs between forced and consensual childhood sexual experiences, and the underlying mechanisms that maintain risk patterns may vary. It is important to clarify risk patterns and mechanisms that maintain them differentially for forced and consensual sex groups so that interventions may be tailored to the specific trajectories related to each experience.     

Childhood Sexual Trauma in Gay Men

Summary

Social context is a crucial lens through which to see and understand the experience of gay men who have been sexually abused as children. Clinicians who recognize the complex interplay of forces within this context will be better able to serve their gay male sexual abuse survivor clients. Given the trauma inherent in a cultural context which stigmatizes, devalues, pathologizes and punishes homosexuality, the added trauma of childhood sexual abuse in effect exponentially intensifies the trauma and the task of healing. It is particularly important that clinicians assist clients to separate sexual abuse and its effects from sexual orientation. Ideally, the former comes to be seen as imposed from without due to another's pathology, and the latter as an intrinsically good and positive part of self that exists entirely apart from the former. The phenomenon of an “Imprinted Arousal Pattern” (IAP), common among sexual abuse survivors, induces the individual to continue to be eroticized by stimulation and circumstances that overtly or covertly resemble the abuse circumstances. Case illustrations are provided to aid the reader in understanding and assisting others to work through this dynamic.     

Same-Sex Sexual Experience in Thailand

Abstract

In this paper I consider a number of studies of rates of same-sex sexual experience among young men and women in Thailand which have been conducted since the late 1980s. Interest in conducting these quantitative studies was prompted, first, by concerns among Thai educators and social commentators about a perceived increase in homosexual behavior among both male and female adolescents and, second, by the need to determine the prevalence of different sexual behaviors considered to be associated with the risk of transmitting the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Studies of rates of same-sex experience have a more recent history in Thailand than in the United States or other western countries, beginning in the second half of the 1980s. The first studies were undertaken by researchers working within a psychological framework which problematized homosexuality and which was motivated by a concern to reduce the incidence of homosexuality. This anti-homosexual research program is detailed in Jackson and Sullivan's introductory essay in this volume. The second, HIV/AIDS-influenced set of studies, have been undertaken by epidemiologists and demographers operating within a framework that has not problematized homoer-oticism. In reviewing the Thai research, I critically assess the methodologies of the various studies and point to possible biasing factors in data gathering techniques. I conclude by considering the implications of these studies for the provision of social services to homosexually active men and women in Thailand.     

Sexual Orientation Identity Formation among Gay,Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths: Multiple Patterns of Milestone Experiences

This study examined variations in “coming out” for gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths (N= 72), ages 16 to 27. To indicate the timing and sequence of developmental stages, the respondents reported the ages at which they had completed 10 milestone events involving self‐awareness, sexual experiences, and disclosure to others, and also reported on current immersion in gay/lesbian/bisexual social networks. Cluster analysis identified five patterns of experiences. Three groups had generally early trajectories, two of which had specific delays in either sexual activity or disclosure. Two other clusters had relatively late trajectories, one of which also reported the lowest levels of gay/lesbian/bisexual social immersion. Comfort with sexual orientation was greatest in persons with early patterns and lowest within the group with late trajectories and limited gay/lesbian/bisexual social immersion.     

Sexual Assault Risks Among Gay and Bisexual Men

The goal of this study was to examine lifetime patterns of sexual assault and associated risks among a purposive sample of gay and bisexual men (N = 183; 18 to 35 years old, M = 24.3). Cross-sectional data were collected via written, self-administered questionnaires and face-to-face, event-based qualitative interviews. Alcohol severity scores indicated high rates of hazardous drinking (53.0%) and possible dependence (14.2%) among participants. One-half of men (50.8%) reported childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and 67.2% reported adult sexual assault (ASA). Average age at most recent ASA was 21 years. Most perpetrators (83.9%) of recent ASA incidents were male; 67.0% of participants reported consuming alcohol and/or drugs prior to the most recent incident. Regression findings indicated more severe CSA experiences and past alcohol-related problems predicted recent severe ASA. Although we found similarities between gay and bisexual men in lifetime sexual assault history, we found some distinct differences in ASA risk factors. Bisexual men reported higher alcohol severity scores, more female ASA perpetrators, higher internalized homophobia scores, and fewer male sexual partners than gay men. Findings suggest the need for interventions that reduce ASA risk among sexual minority men—and the potential benefits of focusing on alcohol consumption in risk reduction efforts.     

Sexual Orientation Bias Experiences and Service Needs of Gay,Lesbian, Bisexual,Transgendered, and Two-Spirited American Indians

Summary

Employing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this study examined: sexual orientation bias experiences among American Indians (AIs) who were gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgend-ered, or two-spirited (GLBTT-S); service provider attitudes toward AI GLBTT-S; and service barriers and needs with respect to AI GLBTT-S at one AI community-based organization. Among the 14 AI GLBTT-S surveyed, the percentages reporting various bias-related experiences were comparable or greater to those reported for non-AI GLBTT-S in other studies (e.g., 36% had been physically assaulted because of their sexual orientation). The 22 service providers surveyed revealed generally low levels of heterosexism, which was inversely related to contact and comfort with AI GLBTT-S as well as understanding of AI GLBTT-S terms. Data from 8 focus groups (7 with service providers and 1 with AI two-spirited men) yielded four main themes related to problems and barriers to service utilization for AI GLBTT-S (i.e., invisibility, discrimination, trauma, and identity) as well as ideas for community-based program planning with this population.     

Gay and Bisexual Married Men's Attitudes and Experiences

Abstract

In this study, 20 gay or bisexual men's experiences of coming out to wives were explored. Specifically, their attitudes and behaviors before, during, and after marriage were examined. Findings were provided about upbringing, reasons for entering marriage, and the coming out process. Through semi-structured interviews information was obtained about the factors which led up to the revelation of homosexuality or bisexuality and about how these men experienced their relationships with their wives and family after coming out. The interviews revealed the fears which prevented these men from coming out earlier in their lives. The most common reason for entering marriage was due to social and family pressure and because of the desire to have a normal, healthy life. Attitudes toward gays and lesbians were negative before marriage and worsened following disclosure.     

Perceptions of Early Sexual Experiences and Adult Sexual Adjustment

Abstract

Individuals' self-evaluations of their childhood and adolescent sexual experiences as positive, mixed, or negative, and the relationship of these evaluations to adult sexual attitudes and adjustment were examined. Undergraduate students (N= 141) at a Northeastern university completed a sex history questionnaire and measures of sexual attitudes and satisfaction. Results supported the hypotheses that positively evaluated early sexual experiences would be associated with greater erotophilia, more acceptance of various sexual behaviors for self and others, and greater sexual satisfaction. Limitations of the study include potential biases of retrospective reports and relatively small sample sizes for some comparisons. Implications for future research include the importance of self-evaluations of early sexual experience as a predictor of later sexual attitudes and adjustment.     

Racial and Sexual Identities of Asian American Gay Men

ABSTRACT

This paper reports results of two studies about the racial and sexual identities of Asian American gay men. In the first study, 32 Asian American gay men completed measures assessing racial and sexual identity attitudes. Results suggested that Assimilationists had the most negative sexual identity attitudes, followed by Marginalists and Separationists, with Integrationists having the most positive sexual identity attitudes. Study 2 was a qualitative study based on interviews with 10 of the participants in Study 1. Twenty-nine themes were identified and grouped under five domains (personal background, coming out, being Asian in the U.S., being gay in the U.S., and multiple identities). Most themes were related to the parallel and interactive processes between participants' racial and sexual identity development. Practical and research implications are discussed.     

Female Athletes' Motives and Experiences During the Gay Games

This study examines female athletes' motives for participation in Gay Games IV, and their experiences during the Games. The participants (N = 132) acknowledged traditional sport motives as well as social, self-enhancement, and political motives for participation in the Gay Games. Positive aspects of these athletes' experiences at the Games included having a sense of belonging, pride, and community. Meeting, competing with, and being near other lesbian, gay, and bisexual athletes also were important motives and outcomes of participation in this event. Almost all of the athletes described positive experiences at the Games. The experiences expressed by these athletes show the affirming emotional and psychological impact of participation in an inclusive sport environment. Overall, while many of these athletes noted sport highlights in describing their experiences, the social and personal development were voiced more consistently and frequently.     

HIV/AIDS Projects with and for Gay Men in Northern Thailand

Abstract

In this paper I look at three HIV/AIDS projects which were run by and for gay men, transsexuals and men who have sex with men (MSM) in northern Thailand in the early 1990s. These three projects were very different in format and in context, ranging from a rural village AIDS association to an urban drag beauty contest. The projects were located in settings as different as gay bars and cruising areas, shopping malls and rural villages. Aspects of the three Thai projects have important implications for those working in HIV/AIDS prevention and in the care and support of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs) across cultures, particularly in relation to education, outreach and counselling programs.     

Factors Influencing the Sexual Relationships of Lesbians and Gay Men

ABSTRACT

This study examined the rewards and costs that lesbians and gay men experience in their sexual relationships. Participants were 23 lesbians and 15 gay men who completed questionnaires and participated in a semi-structured interview. Frequently identified sexual rewards included emotional and physical intimacy, feeling accepted and supported, communication, and a positive view of self. Sexual costs included feeling vulnerable and negative social and cultural attitudes toward same-sex relationships. Sexual rewards and costs tended to cluster into three main categories: relationship factors, sexual factors, and factors related to being a sexual minority. The participants' responses illustrate the limitations of applying conventional (biomedical) models of sexual response to men as well as to women. Moreover, they strengthen calls for theories of sexual functioning that are based on diverse experiences and that consider sociocultural, political, economic, relational, psychological, and medical factors.     

Honoring the Experiences of Gay Stepfamilies: An Unnoticed Population

This article will acquaint the reader with the experiences of a largely overlooked yet growing subpopulation of stepfamilies: gay stepfamilies. The article presents available data on the prevalence of gay stepfamilies, their identified strengths, their known challenges, and the implications of these family experiences for family counselors who serve this population. The reader will also be provided with directions for future research and study specific to this population.     

Experiences of the Orthodox Community Among Orthodox Jewish Gay Men

Sense of community includes elements such as sense of belonging, mutual interdependence, trust, shared goals and values, and shared history. It is associated with benefits for both the members and the community and is believed to be stronger in religious minority groups. This qualitative study describes the experiences of the Jewish Orthodox community among Orthodox Jewish gay men. In-depth interviews were conducted with 22 men about their experiences of being gay in their Orthodox communities. A content analysis revealed four themes: community as a home, community as a comprehensive provider, community as a strict behavior regulator, and community as punitive toward gay men. Findings suggest that Orthodox Jewish gay men have mixed feelings about their community; being satisfied with a community that provides for all their needs, but also living in constant fear of the negative consequences they and their families may endure if their homosexuality will be revealed. Recommendations for social work practice are provided.     

Mate Availability and Women's Sexual Experiences in China

Data from the 1999-2000 Chinese Health and Family Life Survey were merged with community-level data from the 1982, 1990, and 2000 Chinese censuses to examine the relationship between the local sex ratio (number of men per 100 women) and sexual outcomes among women (N = 1,369). Consistent with hypotheses derived from demographic-opportunity theory, multilevel logistic regression analyses showed that women are more likely to be sexually active, to have had premarital sexual intercourse, to have been forced to have sex, and to test positive for a sexually transmitted infection when there is a relative abundance of age-matched men in their local community. Education, birth cohort, and geographic location also emerged as significant predictors of women's sexual experiences.     

New Directions for Research Examining Sexual Trauma Histories of Gay Men

Summary

Research efforts have been unable to accurately examine the effect of childhood sexual trauma in the adult lives of gay men. Complications stemming from precise definitions of abuse, as well as the subjectivity inherent in the terms, make comprehensive research difficult. As abuse and traumatic events may sometimes be subtle and not involve overt violence, these more delicate events are often overlooked or unaccounted for. Further, because it is a complex endeavor to obtain accurate reporting from children, research efforts rely on the self-reports of adults remembering traumatic events. The symptomatology that results from trauma, including amnesia and dissociation, also affects the reliability of self-report. Additionally, gay men have been notably absent from sexual trauma research efforts for a variety of reasons. A research study which investigates childhood sexual trauma in the histories of adult gay men is discussed. Directions for future research efforts are suggested.     

Sexual Compulsivity and Sexual Behaviors Among Gay and Bisexual Men and Lesbian and Bisexual Women

Within the existing body of research, the information pertaining to sexual compulsivity (SC) among women, both homo- and heterosexual, remains rather limited in comparison to men. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of SC in a community sample of gay and bisexual men and lesbian and bisexual women and to identify differences in sexual practices based on classification as sexually compulsive within gender. Supporting previous research, the findings indicated that gay and bisexual men were significantly higher in SC when compared to lesbian and bisexual women. Similarly, sexually compulsive gay and bisexual men were more likely to report drug use with sex than their non-sexually compulsive peers, suggesting that “party n' play” may play a larger role for men with SC. In addition, the findings demonstrated empirical support for the proposition that lesbian and bisexual women with symptoms of SC were more likely to engage in specialized sexual behaviors in comparison to their non-sexually compulsive peers. These data suggest that SC manifests differently in gay, lesbian, and bisexual men and women.     

Sexual perceptions and practices of young people in Northern Thailand

This study draws together survey and qualitative data on sexual practices among more than 1,750 young Northern Thai people aged 17-20 years. The survey data indicate that sexually active young people frequently engage in, or are subjected to, risk-taking behaviours that may expose them to sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies. These include having multiple sexual partners and quite frequent partner turnover. High percentages also engage in unprotected sexual intercourse with various types of sexual partner (steady, casual and paid), and young women especially had often experienced sexual coercion. Qualitative data revealed a mixture of perceptions and practices affecting sexual intercourse among the young, such as having unplanned sex, engaging in sexual relations to display love or cement committed relationships, and having serial relationships, both monogamous and non-monogamous. We conclude that condom use should be a central focus of activities aimed at preventing adverse sexual health outcomes, but that new intervention approaches to encourage use of other contraceptives are also needed. Changes in sexual norms among young people also need to be acknowledged and accepted by older Thai generations in order for programs and interventions to combat negative sexual and reproductive health consequences to be more effective.