Cultural Identity and Place in Adult Korean-American Intercountry Adoptees

ABSTRACT

This study explores the interrelationship between cultural identity and place in the lives of adult Korean adoptees living primarily in the Twin Cities area of Minnesota. Using life histories derived through multiple semi-structured interviews, a web of related themes emerged which reveal the interplay between ethnicity, identity, gender, and place. From childhood to adulthood, most Korean adoptees followed a similar developmental trajectory of denial, self-awareness, and emerging cultural consciousness about their Korean heritage, particularly upon their departure from their adoptive homes after high school. These journeys were mediated and nuanced by environmental factors including -but not limited to -places adoptees lived or visited in Korea, the U.S. or elsewhere abroad. This study highlights the limitations of previous studies that focused only on adoptive parents or adoptees as children, an approach which loses the life course perspective of inter-country adoptees' search for identity, belonging, and a sense of home.     

“They Were Strangers Who Loved Me”: Discussions,Narratives, and Rituals During Korean Adoptees’ Initial Reunions with Birth Families

The present study examines Korean adoptees’ initial reunions with their birth families. Using Galvin’s (2006) framework of boundary management, this project examined the discussions, narratives, and rituals that took place during these reunions. In-depth interviews revealed that participants wanted to absolve their birth families of guilt for placing them up for adoption and to know whether they bore any similarities to their birth families. Birth families were reported to apologize, express love for participants, convey gratitude toward adoptive families, and offer advice. Knowing their story of birth and relinquishment was important to most participants, and although birth families were reported to share this information, the narratives were sometimes perceived as incoherent. Participants also reported experiencing rituals, which included extended touch, exchanging gifts, going on outings, learning culture, and performing symbolic family acts. Results from the study suggest that engaging in these internal boundary management strategies contributed to a sense of personal identity—not just family identity—and that the birth family reunion may be a culturally recognized family ritual in South Korea. Scholarly and practical implications are discussed.     

Reunions of Adoptees Who Have Met Both Birth Parents: Post-Reunion Relationships and Factors that Facilitate and Hinder the Reunion Process

Eighteen adoptees who had met both their birth mothers and birth fathers were surveyed in order to determine the types of post-reunion relationships they developed with each birth parent and the factors that facilitated or hindered their reunions. While adoptees were more likely to develop a personal rather than nonpersonal relationship with birth mothers, relationships with birth fathers were more evenly divided between personal and nonpersonal relationships. Thematic analysis revealed some similarities in the factors that influence reunions with each birth parent (e.g., birth parent characteristics, support from others), though some differences also emerged (e.g., reactions to pregnancy and relinquishment). Issues of kinship, identity, and family structure are discussed, along with implications for counseling.     

The Resilience of Transracial Korean American Adoptees: Cultural Identity Crisis within the Family and the Mediating Effects of Family Conflict and Cohesiveness during Adversity

This study used a mixed-methods approach to examine the family practices that are fundamental for fostering resilience among 34 transracially adopted Korean American youths living with White American parents in the United States. The results demonstrate that in addition to experiencing stress related to their education and occupation, Korean American adoptees may encounter cultural identity crises. The negative effects of life stress on adoptees' mental health, however, were diminished once family cohesiveness and conflict were taken into account. Study findings have important implications for various stakeholders who seek to cultivate a healthy living environment for society's children (i.e., orphans).     

Self-concept and attitudes toward adoption: a comparison of searching and nonsearching adult adoptees

This study showed that nonsearchers and searchers are different from each other on almost every measure that was applied. Research on and experience with searching adult adoptees should not be applied to nonsearching adult adoptees. Likewise, research on and experience with nonsearching adult adoptees should not be generalized to searchers . The results of this study do not support the belief that adoptees, in general, have low self-concepts and identity conflicts, or that adoptees need information about their biological families and reunions to resolve their identity conflicts. Although the sample of pre- and post-reunion searchers was small, reunions did not make a significant difference in self-concept or identity conflicts, as measured by the TSCS . The results of this study do not support the theoretical bases often cited to justify open records. Specifically, adult adoptees in this study do not have negative self-concepts, did not experience poor adoptor - adoptee relationships, and the majority did not experience revelation of adoptive status as disruptive or late. Although significant differences exist between the comparison groups, an important finding is that of all the adult adoptees, the majority scored above the sixtieth percentile on the TSCS and had positive scores on the Attitude Toward Parents Scales. Furthermore, they were happy growing up, with only 12% reporting being unhappy. These findings support the conclusions of Day [1979] and Norvell and Guy [1977] as well as the belief that adoption is a legitimate way of building families.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Conceptions of Family and Adoption Among Older Adoptees

ABSTRACT

Research on older child adoptions that incorporates the adoptee's perspective is noticeably absent from the literature. Drawing on the theoretical, clinical and empirical literature on children's understanding of family and adoption, this paper reports a study that examined older adoptees' conceptions of family and adoption relative to nonadopted peers. Interviews with 15 children adopted between ages 8 and 11 and a sample of 15 demographically matched nonadopted children (47% male; 84% Caucasian, 13% African American, 3% Biracial Asian/American) provided data that were analyzed for differences in children's understanding and elaboration of family and adoption concepts. Although no group differences were found in children's basic understanding of family or adoption, differences emerged in children's ratings of the acceptability and typicality of family constellations, as well as in the nature of concept elaboration. Older adoptees were more likely to accept and view as typical nontraditional family constellations. Whereas nonadopted children relied more on biological themes, older adoptees' concept elaboration was qualitatively richer, reflecting their varied birth family and foster care experiences. Within-group comparisons among older adoptees revealed differences: Children with more experience in foster care and children who lived in the adoptive home longer displayed higher levels of family understanding and a more realistic perspective of the permanence of the placement. Implications for future research and adoption service delivery are discussed.     

Family Cultural Socialization,Ethnic Identity,and Self-Esteem

Abstract

Using a Web-based survey, this study of 82 adult international adoptees examined the relationship between parental support for cultural socialization and its effect on adoptees' selfesteem. Feelings of belongingness and ethnic identity were predicted to serve as mediators between the central variables. The results showed a positive relationship between cultural socialization and selfesteem, which was mediated by a feeling of belongingness and one aspect of ethnic identification (marginality) among Asianborn international adoptees. These data suggest that counselors should raise awareness and knowledge of adoptive parents about the importance of cultural continuity in the child's upbringing.     

Racial Authenticity and Familial Acceptance Among Transracial Adoptees: A Bothersome Bargain of Belonging

Transracial adoption in the United States has increased significantly in recent years. Crossing the color line within the intimate familial sphere has important implications for how institutions such as the family enable and constrain individuals' identity work. We explore how transracial family members utilize racial stereotypes and racialist understandings in everyday life, employing 30 in‐depth, life‐story interviews with both transracial adoptees and their white siblings. In attempts to accomplish a sense of belonging and authenticity, we argue that both transracial adoptees of color and their white siblings experience divergent and paradoxical expectations of familial and racial authenticity. We find that although they often utilized “color capital” in a quest for racial authenticity, in certain spaces and environments, they were expected to eschew their nonwhite identity and embrace “acting white” as purported by white family members and their “white debt” approach to racial socialization. This study adds nuance to the question of how families navigate the enduring power of the color line in relation to the reproduction of both material inequalities and racial discrimination.     

The Past and Present Cultural Experiences of Adopted Korean American Adults

This study used a mixed-method approach to examine the past and present cultural life experiences of Korean adult adoptees. Open-ended responses across four developmental periods (childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, and adulthood) were qualitatively analyzed and categorized into seven categories of cultural activities. We then quantitatively investigated the relationship between these domains and ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was positively correlated with only cultural experiences from young adulthood. The practical relevance of the research findings to adopted adults and adoptive families is discussed.     

Erickson’s identity theory and the importance of ethnic exploration for transnational adoptees

In an effort to promote their child’s ethnic identity development, parents of transnational adoptees regularly engage in cultural exploration activities with their children. This practice is aligned with Erik Erikson’s identity theory and constructs of exploration and commitment. Using qualitative analysis of interviews with adult adoptees, this study identifies four themes common to participants including: (1) travel to one’s birth country is a transformative experience; (2) relationships with other adoptees are important; (3) adoptees feel differently about the importance of cultural activities during childhood; and (4) adoptees feel both unique in their personal ethnic identity and have feelings of marginality.     

Identity Formation in Children and Young People in Open Adoptions from Out-of-home Care in New South Wales,Australia

Semi-structured interviews were used to explore identity development for nine adoptees (aged 9–23 years) who were adopted by their foster carers in New South Wales, Australia. Adoptions were open, with court-ordered face-to-face contact with birth families. Findings suggest that participants had healthy adoptive identities, with coherent and meaningful narratives about their life histories. Adoption provided a sense of security and belonging. Openness provided information to build a self-narrative and encouraged discussion of adoption issues within adoptive families. Adoptive parents were critical in helping children understand their adoption and facilitating direct contact with birth families, thus laying foundations for positive identity development.     

Searching for the Self: Adult International Adoptees’ Narratives of Their Search for and Reunion With Their Birth Families

In this case study, five international adoptees from Finland were interviewed about their search and reunion experiences to find out what meanings they ascribed to their identities and family relations. The thematic analysis yielded three themes: search and reunion in significant periods of life, meaning of reunion for identity, and belonging and relatedness within family. The first theme was characterized by the changing interest in birth family from the inability in childhood to fully understand the meaning of adoption and the growing interest in adolescence to adulthood where participants’ own parenthood intensified their interest. The second theme was characterized by the sense of coherence and sense of continuity that the adoptees, despite the conflicting emotions of reunion, felt they had achieved through reunion. In the third theme, reunion with their birth family appeared significant, even though belonging to a family was interpreted more as an outcome of attachment and nurture than biology. Particular for all themes was the meaning of communicating about adoption-related issues for the adoptee–adoptive parent relationship. Future research is needed to concentrate in more detail on the broad themes and to investigate how the meanings of the birth family for adoptive identity change over life courses.     

“Bridging Several Worlds”: The Process of Identity Development of Second-Generation Ethiopian and Eritrean Young Women in Canada

This paper explores the social and cultural experiences of second-generation Ethiopian and Eritrean young women in relationship to expectations surrounding identity continuity by way of maintenance of traditional culture. From the analysis of ten in-depth interviews, complexities in family relationships emerged as a major category with interrelated concepts that particularize the social and cultural experiences of second-generation Ethiopian and Eritrean women with their process of identity formation. These included gendered intergenerational relationships whereby Ethiopian and Eritrean parents maintained a strong sense of belonging to the larger culture they left behind and raised their daughters with such expected continuity; and the confrontation of cultural resistance through communication as a means of forging a balance between conflict and consensus in families. Findings from this study highlight the need to expand understandings in the scope of intergenerational activities and values in immigrant families in both research and clinical practice. This necessitates that practitioners take into account the structure and composition of family, the values imbedded within, and the role and functions of each member of the unit. This cannot be decontextualized from the family’s experiences of migration and ongoing settlement process.     

Transition to fatherhood: New perspectives in the global context of changing men's identities

The proposed thematic session aims to highlight the main challenges that the cultural and structural changes within the families and in gender relations and the changing social expectations about men's involvement in the care of children and about fatherhood pose to men's and fathers’ identity. Fathering in contemporary society requires men to be simultaneously provider, guide, household help and nurturer. The difficulties of these roles, and the tensions they sometimes produce, challenge men's relationships with their female partners, the meaning and place of work in their lives and their sense of self as competent adults. We will also explore the relationship between transitions to fatherhoods and the challenges of balancing work and family obligations. How to balance paid work, other interests and relationships with responsibilities, anxieties and pleasures of childrearing are today concerns for both men and women.     

A Qualitative Study of “fa’a’amu” Kinship Care Experiences in Tahiti

“Fa'a'amu” is a type of adoption commonly found in French Polynesia involving open, informal adoption arrangements, in which the child maintains ties to the family of origin. Although the function that child circulation plays in Oceanic societies has been widely documented by anthropologists, the implications of fa'a'amu at the individual level have yet to be examined. To address this gap, an exploratory qualitative study was conducted to 1) examine the lived experiences of adults who were fa'a'amu as children, and 2) identify experiences and characteristics associated with positive psychosocial and mental health outcomes in adulthood. The sample consisted of 22 Tahitian adults, who had been fa'a'amu during childhood. Applying a developmental and attachment lens, we explored how participants experienced relationships with birth and adoptive families, and how being fa'a'amu impacted their sense of well-being, attachment, identity, and belonging. Data was collected through The Adult Attachment Interview and the Fa'a'amu Experience Interview, which were coded using thematic analysis. Factors associated with positive outcomes in adulthood included early age at adoption, sensitive fa'a'amu parents, positive or benign relationships with birth parents, and respect between fa'a'amu and birth families. Factors associated with emotional distress included late age at adoption, abandonment and rejection, exploitative fa'a'amu parents, and conflict between birth and fa'a'amu families.     

“One should follow the wind”: Individualized filial piety and support exchanges in Indian immigrant families in the United States

Within the context of social and demographic transformation, including trend toward globalization, changing patterns of longevity and immigration, this study examines the informal support exchanges between older parents and their adult children in Indian (South Asian) multi-generational families in the United States. Guided by symbolic interactionist thought and a life course perspective, this paper draws on qualitative data from in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 10 older adults in Atlanta, Georgia to study their expectations of and experiences with family support and the principles of Grounded Theory Methods informed our analysis. Filial piety, known as seva in the Indian culture, was used as a framework by the participants to make sense of support exchanges and intergenerational relationships within their own families. Participants' accounts of support exchanges with their parents in India do not always match with the support exchanged with their children in the U.S. The similarities and differences participants speak of as they compare themselves to the traditional practices surrounding seva suggest “individualized” practices of intergenerational relationships/familial support and the influence of and interplay between individual, familial, and wider societal forces. Our findings have implications for policy and practice with older immigrant adults and their families, and shed light on the experiences of growing old in a foreign land.     

Correlated factors with filial piety expectations of older Koreans and Korean-Americans

ABSTRACT

Changing filial piety expectations have been examined from the viewpoint of younger generations. However, research on older adults’ perspective of this cultural phenomenon is virtually absent from the empirical literature. In an effort to address the changing family life circumstances of Korean and Korean-American families, this study explores older adults’ filial expectations from their own children and correlated factors associated with the expectation. The cross-sectional survey study with 449 older adults found that the majority of respondents still believe that adult children should assume responsibility for the care of their parents. Several factors such as age, education, income, living arrangements, self-rated health, year of immigration, and social support were significantly correlated with filial expectations among older Korean-Americans. Only satisfaction with social support received from family and friends was significantly related to older Koreans’ expectations. Implications for social work practice are discussed and further research directions are suggested.     

Pre-adoption adversities and adoptees' outcomes: The protective role of post-adoption variables in an Italian experience of domestic open adoption

Academics agree that pre-adoption adversities are determining factors in post-adoption adjustment. However, few studies have yet to explore the role of factors intervening in the adoption process and the interplay between the child and adoptive family variables. Specifically, little is known about how the impact of early adversities is moderated by post-adoption factors to produce specific outcomes.The present study concerning domestic adoption explored the adjustment of 37 adolescents and 22 emerging adults (with age ranging between 11 and 18 and 18 and 24 years, respectively), adopted through an Italian form of open adoption, and analyzed the quality of adoptive family relationships and adoptees' attachment as possible moderating variables in the relation between multiple pre-adoptive risk factors and adoptees' outcomes. Pre-adoption stressors were derived from the official adoption files. The Family Environment Scale, Adult Attachment Interview and its modified version for adolescents were used to assess the two possible moderators. Psychological distress and wellbeing were the adoptees' outcomes, with the first being assessed through the Youth Self Report and the Symptom Checklist-90 revised to fit each age group, and the second being assessed through the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Test for the first age group and the Psychological Well-Being Scales, for the second age group. To treat the sample as a whole, the outcome measures were standardized within each group. Results of a path-analytic model with Process showed that the two moderators were significant only in the prediction of adoptees' distress: more specifically, attachment moderated the impact of age of first placement, type of foster care and the presence of biological children in the adoptive family, while the quality of adoptive family relationships moderated the impact of the frequency of birth-family contacts. Overall, the findings support the suggestion that attachment security and good current family relationships can mitigate the negative impact of pre-adoptive stressors on adoptees' later functioning, acting as protective factors.     

Behavioral and Socioemotional Adjustment in International Adoptees: A Comparison Between Italian and Spanish Adoptive Parents’ Reports

Dominated by intracultural comparisons between adopted and nonadopted children, adoption research has until now paid little attention to cross-cultural differences in the adoptees’ behavioral and socioemotional adjustment. The present study is aimed at comparing children adopted in two different countries—Italy and Spain—and at verifying, through their parents’ perceptions, the extent to which cultural context may contribute to shaping children's emotional and behavioral problems. A sample of 207 international adoptees (127 Italian and 80 Spanish) aged between 6 and 14 years was studied. The children's adjustment was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist, which was filled out by the adoptive parents. Results indicated the presence of more similarities than differences between Italian and Spanish subjects: children adopted both in Italy and Spain between 3 and 5 years old were more likely to exhibit behavior problems than were children who entered the adoptive family at any other age. Some differences related to the birth country also emerged.     

The Role of Heritage Camps in Identity Development Among Korean Transnational Adoptees: A Relational Dialectics Approach

This study contributes to the literature on transracial adoptions in two important ways: (1) it compares how parents and transnational adoptees negotiate racial and family identities through the use of heritage camps and (2) it informs that comparison with insights garnered from the theory of relational dialectics. The results, which are based on interviews with Korean-born children and Caucasian-American parents (matched parent-child pairs), suggest that parents utilized camps to both downplay their children's racial differences and give credence to their children's “unique” lives. Adoptees, in contrast, were not concerned with downplaying race; instead, they reported that although camps were fun, they did not impact their sense of identity significantly because they did not do enough to address the racial challenges they faced. These results suggest a potential disjuncture between parental purposes for utilizing heritage camps and the actual experiences of adoptees while at these camps. Moreover, they suggest that additional empirical attention should be paid to adoption policies and practices that explicitly address the racial and ethnic needs of transnational adoptees.