4th International Population Conference: drawing the community into population programs

Summarizes the deliberations and recommendations of the (1978) 4th International Population Conference: "Expanding Rural and Urban Community Participation in Population Programs," sponsored by the World Population Society and the Population Center Foundation, and held in the Philippines. The 2 main concerns were finding ways of involving people in rural villages and urban communities in population programs, and fostering the sharing of ideas and experiences for the benefit of program administrators. Topics covered by the conference and reviewed here were organization and action for community participation; relating population and family planning to other services and the relevant personnel; role of women and women's organizations; involvement of youth; distribution of family planning information, techniques, and supplies; and new ideas and approaches. The resolutions of the delegates and other recommendations are also reviewed.     

颁布、施行人口与计划生育法对人口与计划生育工作的挑战

颁布、施行人口与计生法为加强人口与计生工作提供了法律保障 ,无疑是一件大好事。但是 ,特殊的国情决定了实施人口与计生法会遇到许多困难和问题 ,对人口与计生工作的思路、方法 ,对人口与计生工作的任务、要求 ,对人口与计生工作的作风、工作效率 ,等等 ,都是一种挑战。因此 ,我们必须采取有力措施 ,积极应对这种挑战 ,切实搞好依法管理 ,依法实行计划生育     

Sarikaya: toward community self-reliance in health and family planning

The Sarikaya Project of the Philippine Ministry of Health's National Family Planning Office was conceived as an innovative approach to providing information, education, and communication on health, nutrition, and family planning using the services of neighborhood leaders who can gain the cooperation and participation of community members in health and family planning programs. The Sarikaya worker (SW) serves as the link between the community and the Ministry of Health. Selection of SWs is a collaborative effort of the Barangay Health Service midwife, the community, and the barangay council. SWs are trained by the BHS midwife in a 5-day seminar which includes an orientation to the role and function of the Sarikaya Project, health and family planning IEC, and 1st aid. SWs undertake activities in family planning, maternal and child health, nutrition, environmental sanitation, communicable disease control, and emergency treatment. As volunteers, the SWs receive no compensation except for a nominal training allowance. The SW relies on the BHS midwife for technical and logistical support, on the health committee of the barangay council for coordination and administrative support, and on informal community leaders for guidance and advice. Pilot testing of the sarikaya project was undertaken in 1979, when 241 workers were trained. Results of early evaluations were encouraging, and plans were made to expand the project in 1980.     

Gendered futures, constrained choices: undergraduate perceptions of work and family

Debates about the gendered division of labour tend to focus on negotiation and decision-making by couples in the present, and assume that individuals make rational choices based on present circumstances when deciding questions about workforce engagement, domestic labour and childcare responsibilities. As a result, they overlook the fact that choices made in the present are shaped by past choices. We argue that choices made in the present about work and family are better understood as the outcome of a complex mix of choices that are made across the life course. Drawing on interview data with university undergraduates we show how they were already engaging in ??gendered?? choices about careers long before the spectre of work and family became a daily reality. These choices were made in relation to future identities in which young men imagine a nirvana of seamless work-family balance, while young women imagine a future of compromise and negotiation with inevitable career interruption. In seeking to understand these highly gendered positions our paper contributes to debates about choice in work and family.     

Does family planning work in a Chinese way

The demographic and economic characteristics of China make it necessary to do family planning work in China in a Chinese way. Special characteristics of China and corresponding strategies are detailed 1) China is rather underproductive and underdeveloped, with a huge population, whose growth must be curtailed while industrial and agricultural production is enhanced. 2) In the next 10 years, a large number of young people will center childbearing age, prompting a government policy favoring late marriage and one child per couple. 3) China is large and heterogeneous, and regional authorities should have some population policymaking functions to take sociocultural differences into account. 4) Male child preference ideology in rural areas has been gently combated with a resulting increase in family planning rate from 65.1% to 74.2% from 1979 to 1983. Family planning authorities have made considerable progress, as demonstrated by figures such as a drop of women's total fertility rate from 5.68 in the 60s to 2.07 in the 70s. The task at hand remains large: the population at the end of 1983 was 1,024,950,000. However, family planning is an element of state policy, the marriage law, and the constitution, and mored an more, societal ideology. Government policy equates family planning with child wellness and societal welfare and attempts supportiveness of couples showing positive birth limiting attitudes. An ample system of family planning programs and resource persons furnishes education, a variety of high quality methods are available, and contraceptive research is some of the best in the world.     

Some psychological problems in family planning work]

Psychology has significance in family planning work, because it may promote the scientific nature of family planning work and thus increase its effectiveness. Since people have some common aspects in their psychological process, family planning workers should master some common rules of the people's psychological process in order to understand psychological trends and possible behavior. Through this method, family planning workers may find how to adjust to problems they may encounter in their daily work, such as the worries about a single child being too lonely, spoiled, and hard to handle for the parents, the traditional belief that more children represent good fortune, and more male children may provide security for one's old age. Traditionally, the Chinese people believed that only male children can carry on the family line and that more children will provide a larger labor force, which is beneficial to a family's financial situation. In family planning work, all such incorrect ways of thinking should be corrected and revised. Studies of children's psychology should also be developed so that children may develop a healthy mentality. All these are crucial to the success of family planning work and the promotion of population quality.     

A cast of 40: population and family planning agencies at work in the Philippines

This is a compilation of 42 agencies, both government and private, participating in the Philippine population program. Each listing includes: the purpose of the organization; a summary of its activities for fiscal year 1974-1975; the name of the project director; and the address. A large number of these agencies are engaged primarily in population or family planning work. Others, such as the medical schools at the University of the Philippines and the University of Santo Tomas, have family planning programs as part of a broader effort.     

A survey of the family planning work done in Dongguan County

The total fertility rate of women of childbearing age of Dongguan County in China has been decreasing gradually from 5.9 during the period following the liberation in 1949 to 2.05 in 1982. In order to encourage young couples to implement the policy of family planning consciously, the people's government of Dongguan county decided in July 1980 that all cadres and employees in county towns who received 1-child certificates would be exempted from house rent of 45 square meters from the time they get their certificates and would be allocated a living space of a 2-children family until their children reached age 16. It also stipulated that every couple could enjoy 1 month's holiday every year for 3 years and during the holiday, their salary, bonus and rate of attendance would not be affected. Because women bear less children today, they are relieved from heavy household chores and become the main working force in collective production. As a result, the development of town-run enterprises was stimulated and the total industrial output value of these enterprises increased. The average monthly salary of each female worker is about 100 yuan. In 1984, the average income per capita of the country rose to 649.2 yuan. The implementation of family planning work has eased the tension in the education field. Previously, because of the large number of school-age children in rural areas, teachers had to teach 2 classes. In the past 4 years, great emphasis was laid on intellectual investment. During this period, 2351 schools were built and several fundraising projects were implemented. Since 1981, more than 200 new running water projects were built, and new public services have been developed, including old age homes.     

A survey of work done by the China family planning association

The China Family Planning Association was set up in May 1980 as a nongovernmental organization under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. Funds come from the government, international organizations, and individual or community donations. 13 branches have been established so far. The Association has contributed to publicity, education, and research: members have given lectures on family planning, genetics, and population theory, and have helped develop contraceptives. The lectures on population problems have been published. In addition, the Association's periodical "Ren Sheng" is published bimonthly, and has a circulation of 125,000. Meeting have been convened for the exchange of information and experience among family planning workers. The Association organized tripartite seminars with IPPF and JOICFP in June and October, 1983. Under the auspices of the Association, 8 trainees have been sent to the David Owen Center in the United Kingdom for a Year's study, and 1 trainee was sent to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The Association was accepted as a full member of the IPPF at the conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, in November, 1983.     

Young women's work and family formation in Sri Lanka

"Patterns of family formation in Sri Lanka resemble those of wealthier nations, with late marriage, delayed childbearing, and moderately low fertility. This article addresses two questions: How have these family formation patterns emerged in the absence of the normally expected levels of economic development? And what activities have occupied young women in the premarital, prechildbearing period? Answers are suggested by data from three sources: the 1981 census; a set of focus-group discussions on the rights, obligations, and aspirations of young women related to marriage, work, childbearing, and child care; and a sample survey of 1,535 women of ages 15-30 in Kalutara District. The article describes the interplay of socioeconomic and familial forces that have affected the status of young Sri Lankan women."     

Grasp the work of family planning by unifying thinking and stabilizing the policy

The China Population Information and Research Center reported that in 1988 the number of childbearing women between 20 and 49 was 4.65 million above 1987, but the population growth rate was 0.19 lower than in 1987. Controlling the population is still a difficult problem. The 3rd baby boom of New China; economic, cultural, social, and other factors; and the uneven progress of family planning are cited as causes of the lack of control. The 13th Party's Congress in 1989 plans to work to reform family planning and control population growth. In particular, late marriages and childbearing will be promoted; in cities, one-child-per- couple will be policy; in rural areas, only girl households will be allowed another child only after several years; local family planning regulations will be supported; and research on family planning and safer, longer acting contraceptives will be financed.     

Develop family planning work based on the reality of minority regions]

Pingtang County, Guizhou Province, is the home of the Bu-i and Miao minorities, who comprise 55% of the county's population. Since 1980, the county has vigorously followed family planning such that the rate of birth control rose from 20% in 1978 to 95% in 1985, the rate of natural growth went from 34/1000 to 3.6/1000, and the multiple child rate dropped to about 6% from 37.7% Following 5 years of work, the following observations are made: 1) The first step is to determine whether or not to have family planning because the common feeling about minorities is that by virtue of being a minority, family planning is not a serious issue. But family planning became a necessity when it was realized that population was growing faster than food production, creating problems in housing and public health, and in a dependence on the nation at large. 2) The initial step in family planning is ideological; a plan should be implemented whereby goals to reform old customs and thoughts (such as favoring males over females) are carried out by local leaders and cadres at all levels.     

Giving to family versus giving to the community within and across generations

In this paper, we examine the impact of parental giving on the transfer behavior of adult children to family members and community institutions using unique data from the Indonesian Family Life Surveys. Our findings point to persistence of private transfer networks across generations. In particular, the community transfer decisions of adults living outside origin households are positively influenced by the origin household’s community giving. We also investigate the relationship between household transfers to family and community networks. We find that unobserved heterogeneity in giving to family members and community organizations is positively correlated, suggesting important complementarities between transfer networks.     

Education,work, and family formation in early adulthood

A multivariate analysis examined relationships among education, work, and family formation using data from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972. A consensus has emerged among behavioral scientists that these three variables affect each other mutually, but until recently, methodological limitations have made it difficult to study these mutual effects. The present study attacked these difficulties by usingLISREL procedures. The most important findings, perhaps, are that, among women, both working and pursuing higher education exert substantial negative influences on marrying and becoming a parent. These influences are substantially stronger than. influences in the opposite direction. Therefore, these results imply that, for women, delaying childbearing is more a consequence of decisions to pursue other activities than it is a cause of such decisions. Among men, pursuing higher education negatively influenced family formation but working did not. The most notable difference between men and women, however, was that forming a family exerted a positive influence on working among men but not among women. Locus of control exerted little influence on any outcome.     

Promoting family planning work in Xiaqidu township by establishing a family planning association in each village]

A family planning association was established in each village of Xiaqidu Township in Hunan Province, China in October 1986. The positive functions of each such association were so fully developed that family planning work reached new levels. For example, most villages are no longer experiencing early marriages or unplanned births. Some of the villages have established associations for individual work groups. The traditional method was for both township and village associations to rely upon the positive attitudes of officials to instill into fertile women Party policy, and to arouse their patriotism and initiative. By establishing family planning associations at the village level, however, the people can conduct their own affairs and educate themselves. Emphasis has been placed on attracting into the associations those who are of childbearing age, as well as older villagers of experience. The associations' raison d'etre was to serve the people. They did so through: propaganda (disseminating population theory, birth control and family planning information); helping the people overcome poverty, traditional thinking, and ignorance; assisting women with any problems and anxieties relating to child-bearing; delivering contraceptives to households; and providing the elderly with care and the young with education.     

Agricultural production responsibility system and the work of family planning in the rural area]

With the establishment of the agricultural production responsibility system, the entire agricultural management and economic system has undergone great changes, and family planning in rural areas has met with many difficulties. Because of this responsibility system, households with more manpower seem to become wealthy more rapidly than others. An existing belief among the rural population is that more children will provide a larger labor force and thus more income. Birth control and family planning are therefore becoming more difficult. In order to change existing beliefs, a comprehensive ideological education for peasants is needed so that they may understand the question of birth control from the viewpoints of national interests. Economic rewards and administrative restrictions may be used as necessary birth control measures. Agricultural production and family planning can be managed well if there is close contact and cooperation between the cadres and the masses. Extra care and benefits should be given to women of childbearing age who undergo birth control operations and agree to a single child in each household. Welfare programs for the masses, such as kindergartens and nursing homes must be established in order to reduce their worries. In addition, efforts are needed to study the new situation and solve new problems. The goal of controlling the rural population growth should be achiefed through practical work and experience.     

Job loss and family adjustments in work and schooling during the Mexican peso crisis

We use individual data from a panel of families during the depth of the peso crisis in Mexico to investigate whether the transition of the male household head from employment into unemployment affects the labor force participation of his spouse and children. We find that significant added-worker effects are in operation especially for adult females (wives), but no evidence that the labor force participation, the school attendance, and the likelihood of advancing to the next school grade of teenage males are influenced by the event of unemployment of the household head. The head's unemployment is significantly associated with a higher probability that teenage females do not attend school. However, lower attendance does not appear to impede their advancement to the next grade.

Integrated family planning/parasite control project: a different approach to community health problems

An obstacle to the acceptance of family planning is the fact that its advantages are not immediately apparent or tangible. A way to get around this obstacle is through the use of "entry points"--projects which yield tangible results in a relatively short time. Through these entry points, the fieldworker builds credibility and wins the confidence of the people in the community he or she is serving. Thus, when the time comes, the people will be receptive to the family planning message. This strategy of the use of entry points is common to integrated projects with a community development program becoming a sort of entry point for family planning fieldworkers. 1 such project, begun quite recently by the Family Planning Organization of the Philippines (FPOP) in 4 pilot sites, uses deworming as an entry point. It is officially known as the Integrated Family Planning/Parasite Control/Nutrition Project. It is 1 of several projects cosponsored and financed by the Japanese Organization for International Cooperation in Family Planning (JOICFP) and the Asian Parasite Control Organization (APCO) in almost a dozen other Asian and Latin American countries. The immediate objective of the project is to establish or increase the credibility of family planning fieldworkers among the people in a target area. Fieldwork connected with family planning is conducted alongside a related community health effort that can produce immediate and visible results. The ultimate goal is to encourage community participation to such an extent that there will no longer be a need for the fieldworker. Strategic planning involves thinking up the "backbone" and molding the "skeleton" of the project, i.e., its concept and basic policies. As the project goes into the design and development stage, additional people are drawn into it. Project experience in Thailand underscores the need to consult with local leaders. The earliest projects were initiated in 1976, but some are already showing successful results. The overall Philippine experience provided support to JOICFP Director Kunii's reiteration of his belief in the effectivity of parasite control as an entry point for population planners. Integration of the nutrition element in the project is regarded as essential.     

Survey and analysis of family planning work at Xindian Brigade]

Through personal interviews, it was found that the success of family planning at Xindan Brigade can be attributed in part to the Brigade party's contribution to family planning education, with the party members acting as family planning models. Moreover, economic objectives are used to secure the results desired. Devoted members are recruited to promote family planning, while economic rewards and restrictions reinforce planning goals. Family planning work in the village of Sung Chuang was reasserted in late 1983 with party leaders acting as family planning models. The results were significant and in 1984, 18 out of 24 brigades fulfilled projected goals by 100% with the average for the entire Sung Chung village being 98.5%. A single-child family rate was obtained in 12 brigades with the average rate in the village for single-child families being 95.9% overall. It is thought that the role of agricultural production must be correctly analyzed and family planning modified to adjust to the "new" type of farming village. Furthermore, a long-lasting contradiction must be forseen between the viewpoints of these 2 sectors of society (i.e., agricultural and political). The policy of the party will be to implement the program and to correctly handle any objections or problems that may arise. Finally, collective management methods must be adopted by the authorities in order to effectively control population growth, especially that seen in the farming village.