Capital‐skill Complementarity and Inequality: A Macroeconomic Analysis

The supply and price of skilled labor relative to unskilled labor have changed dramatically over the postwar period. The relative quantity of skilled labor has increased substantially, and the skill premium, which is the wage of skilled labor relative to that of unskilled labor, has grown significantly since 1980. Many studies have found that accounting for the increase in the skill premium on the basis of observable variables is difficult and have concluded implicitly that latent skill‐biased technological change must be the main factor responsible. This paper examines that view systematically. We develop a framework that provides a simple, explicit economic mechanism for understanding skill‐biased technological change in terms of observable variables, and we use the framework to evaluate the fraction of variation in the skill premium that can be accounted for by changes in observed factor quantities. We find that with capital‐skill complementarity, changes in observed inputs alone can account for most of the variations in the skill premium over the last 30 years.     

Managing Co‐creation Design: A Strategic Approach to Innovation

Co‐creation offers firms and their network of actors significant opportunities for innovation, as each actor offers access to new resources through a process of resource integration. However, despite the significant advantages that co‐creation can offer, there is surprisingly little research providing a strategic approach for identifying the most advantageous co‐creation opportunities, especially when many possible options are available. Recently, scholars have called for research that develops tools and processes related to co‐creation. This study addresses these priorities, making two contributions. First, in contrast to previous work considering co‐creation more generally, or focusing on one specific form only, e.g. co‐production, this paper offers a detailed and granular approach to co‐creation design. A co‐creation design framework is developed, which incorporates multiple design dimensions and categories that can reveal new co‐creation opportunities. Second, the research extends the application of a design approach, specifically within the context of co‐creative activities. The authors use field‐based research with senior executives to develop a framework that includes key co‐creation design elements. A morphological approach is used to explore how a lead firm can identify attractive co‐creation opportunities. An innovation solution in one organization provides an illustration of how the co‐creation design framework can be applied.     

Co‐opetition and Investment for Supply‐Chain Resilience

This paper considers the problem of disruption risk management in global supply chains. We consider a supply chain with two participants, who face interdependent losses resulting from supply chain disruptions such as terrorist strikes and natural hazards. The Harsanyi–Selten–Nash bargaining framework is used to model the supply chain participants' choice of risk mitigation investments. The bargaining approach allows a framing of both joint financing of mitigation activities before the fact and loss‐sharing net of insurance payouts after the fact. The disagreement outcome in the bargaining game is assumed to be the result of the corresponding non‐cooperative game. We describe an incentive‐compatible contract that leads to First Best investment and equal “gain” for all players, when the solution is “interior” (as it almost certainly is in practice). A supplier that has superior security practices (i.e., is inherently safer) exploits its informational advantage by extracting an “information rent” in the usual spirit of incomplete information games. We also identify a special case of this contract, which is robust to moral hazard. The role of auditing in reinforcing investment incentives is also examined.     

对低收入者和高收入者之间的收入不平等程度分析

20世纪90年代以来 ,我国居民收入的不平等程度越来越严重 ,在农村和城市内部 ,低收入群体和高收入群体的收入差距是不断扩大的 ,高收入群体占有的收入份额在迅速上升 ,而低收入群体占有的收入份额在不断下降;在城乡之间 ,收入分配结构也在向有利于城市居民方面变动 ,城乡居民收入差距不断扩大 ,城市人占有的收入份额越来越多 ,而农民占有的收入份额却不断变小。造成收入分配不平等程度日益严重的原因既有产业结构变动因素 ,也有体制改革和宏观经济政策调整因素。为了防止收入分配的过度分化 ,政府应该适度干预市场 ,通过公共政策来调节收入分配 ,并帮助穷者。     

Inequality in Incomes and Access to Education: A Cross‐country Analysis (1960–95)

Abstract. In the current debate on the relationship between inequality in income distribution and growth, one of the possible links works through access to education. Starting from an optimal demand for education where, among other things, the years of education depend on family income, we derive two testable predictions in the analysis of aggregate data on school enrolments: a negative (linear) dependence of enrolment rates on the Gini concentration index on income distribution; and a positive dependence on public resources invested in education and/or on skill premium in the labour market. These predictions are tested on a (unbalanced) panel of 108 countries for the period 1960–95. The main finding of this analysis is that, once we control for the degree of development with the (log of) per capita output, financial constraints seem mainly relevant in limiting the access to secondary education. However, when considering gender differences, there is evidence that female participation in education is more conditioned by family wealth, in some cases starting from primary education. Finally, there is weak evidence that public resources spent on education raise the enrolment rates.     

教育不平等与收入分配差距:中国的实证分析

本文基于内生增长理论,构建联立方程组模型,采用教育基尼系数衡量教育不平等,研究教育不平等与收入分配的作用机理及方向。研究发现:(1)收入分配差距导致教育不平等,教育不平等的改进却没能促进收入分配差距的改善,教育不平等与收入分配差距并非简单线性关系,但教育扩展有利于教育和收入不平等的改善;(2)教育通过人力资本传导机制与收入分配之间发生联系,但其不会自发形成"教育平等←→收入平等"的良性循环;(3)长期内教育不平等的降低并没有改善收入不平等,但收入不平等在当期就能加剧教育不平等程度;(4)目前教育投入的水平、城市化进程并没能有效的改进教育不平等。另外,模型的稳健性得到部分证实。     

Applying Co‐occurrence Text Analysis with ALCESTE to Studies of Impression Management

This paper reviews the potential role of co‐occurrence text analysis using ALCESTE, a computerized text analysis program. Using an illustrative case study from the biometric industry, we demonstrate that this method offers a number of advantageous features, including the provision of visual outputs which are useful for interpreting results, the ability to study longitudinally the effectiveness of impression management at the inter‐organizational level of analysis and the possibility of studying large textual data sets without using predefined dictionaries. Meanwhile, key limitations of the method include its limited versatility, its tedious data‐cleaning process and its ineffectiveness in identifying the centrality or tonality of the discourse. Our overall conclusion is that the introduction and more widespread use of this method in management is timely, particularly for scholars interested in studying narrative fidelity and frame amplification.     

Biogeographical Analysis of Chemical Co‐Occurrence Data to Identify Priorities for Mixtures Research

A challenge with multiple chemical risk assessment is the need to consider the joint behavior of chemicals in mixtures. To address this need, pharmacologists and toxicologists have developed methods over the years to evaluate and test chemical interaction. In practice, however, testing of chemical interaction more often comprises ad hoc binary combinations and rarely examines higher order combinations. One explanation for this practice is the belief that there are simply too many possible combinations of chemicals to consider. Indeed, under stochastic conditions the possible number of chemical combinations scales geometrically as the pool of chemicals increases. However, the occurrence of chemicals in the environment is determined by factors, economic in part, which favor some chemicals over others. We investigate methods from the field of biogeography, originally developed to study avian species co‐occurrence patterns, and adapt these approaches to examine chemical co‐occurrence. These methods were applied to a national survey of pesticide residues in 168 child care centers from across the country. Our findings show that pesticide co‐occurrence in the child care center was not random but highly structured, leading to the co‐occurrence of specific pesticide combinations. Thus, ecological studies of species co‐occurrence parallel the issue of chemical co‐occurrence at specific locations. Both are driven by processes that introduce structure in the pattern of co‐occurrence. We conclude that the biogeographical tools used to determine when this structure occurs in ecological studies are relevant to evaluations of pesticide mixtures for exposure and risk assessment.     

Risk‐Cost‐Benefit Analysis for Transportation Corridors with Interval Uncertainties of Heterogeneous Data

Access management, which systematically limits opportunities for egress and ingress of vehicles to highway lanes, is critical to protect trillions of dollars of current investment in transportation. This article addresses allocating resources for access management with incomplete and partially relevant data on crash rates, travel speeds, and other factors. While access management can be effective to avoid crashes, reduce travel times, and increase route capacities, the literature suggests a need for performance metrics to guide investments in resource allocation across large corridor networks and several time horizons. In this article, we describe a quantitative decision model to support an access management program via risk‐cost‐benefit analysis under data uncertainties from diverse sources of data and expertise. The approach quantifies potential benefits, including safety improvement and travel time savings, and costs of access management through functional relationships of input parameters including crash rates, corridor access point densities, and traffic volumes. Parameter uncertainties, which vary across locales and experts, are addressed via numerical interval analyses. This approach is demonstrated at several geographic scales across 7,000 kilometers of highways in a geographic region and several subregions. The demonstration prioritizes route segments that would benefit from risk management, including (i) additional data or elicitation, (ii) right‐of‐way purchases, (iii) restriction or closing of access points, (iv) new alignments, (v) developer proffers, and (vi) etc. The approach ought to be of wide interest to analysts, planners, policymakers, and stakeholders who rely on heterogeneous data and expertise for risk management.     

Staffing Call Centers with Uncertain Arrival Rates and Co‐sourcing

In a call center, staffing decisions must be made before the call arrival rate is known with certainty. Once the arrival rate becomes known, the call center may be over‐staffed, in which case staff are being paid to be idle, or under‐staffed, in which case many callers hang‐up in the face of long wait times. Firms that have chosen to keep their call center operations in‐house can mitigate this problem by co‐sourcing; that is, by sometimes outsourcing calls. Then, the required staffing N depends on how the firm chooses which calls to outsource in real time, after the arrival rate realizes and the call center operates as a M/M/N + M queue with an outsourcing option. Our objective is to find a joint policy for staffing and call outsourcing that minimizes the long‐run average cost of this two‐stage stochastic program when there is a linear staffing cost per unit time and linear costs associated with abandonments and outsourcing. We propose a policy that uses a square‐root safety staffing rule, and outsources calls in accordance with a threshold rule that characterizes when the system is “too crowded.” Analytically, we establish that our proposed policy is asymptotically optimal, as the mean arrival rate becomes large, when the level of uncertainty in the arrival rate is of the same order as the inherent system fluctuations in the number of waiting customers for a known arrival rate. Through an extensive numerical study, we establish that our policy is extremely robust. In particular, our policy performs remarkably well over a wide range of parameters, and far beyond where it is proved to be asymptotically optimal.     

当前中国居民收入差距扩大的实证分析与动态研究--基于多元线性回归模型的阐释

改革开放以来,经济社会迅速发展的同时,我国的居民收入差距也不断扩大。这种差距的扩大既表现在城镇内部差距和农村内部差距上,更突出地表现在城乡差距和地区差距上。实证研究发现,第三产业就业人数占全国劳动力人数的比重、居民消费价格总指数、失业率等变量与全国居民收入差距、城乡差距和地区差距的拉大有着密切的相关关系。高度重视收入差距扩大问题,采取措施逐步缩小贫富差距,并建立健全国家初次分配和再分配制度,培育容忍合理差距的社会文化,是最大限度地避免社会动荡,促进和谐社会建设的重大理论和现实课题。     

贫困减少与经济增长和收入不平等的关系研究——基于时序数据

基于时间序列分析方法,以1981年～2004年贫困发生率、基尼系数和农村人均纯收入等相关指标,从时序雏度考察贫困人口的变动与经济增长和收入不平等的长期均衡关系和相互作用机制.Johansen协整检验结果表明,3个变量之间存在着一定的长期协整性:格兰杰因果检验发现,农村人均纯收入和基尼系数能够预测贫困发生率的变化,反之不能成立;误差修正模型显示,贫困发生率对农村人均纯收入的弹性系数为正,对基尼系数的弹性系数为负.且前者大于后者.由此认为,农村人均纯收入的提高是促进贫困减少的影响因素,收入不平等在一定程度上阻碍了贫困减少,经济增长对贫困减少的积极效应大于收入不平等对贫困减少的消极效应.因此,在目前中国经济增长时期,确保农民收入大幅度增加、努力缓解收入差距是贫困减少的有效途径.     

Participatory Organizational Research: Examining Voice in the Co‐production of Knowledge

This paper advances participatory methods in management research. We propose the term participatory organizational research to describe this adjunct to action research. We illustrate the potential of the method to allow sometimes unheard organizational members to generate alternative perspectives that can offer the potential for the co‐production of new forms of knowledge that are locally relevant. Participatory methods originate from work with marginalized groups and have been used more commonly in community and organizational development. The aim of such research is, generally, to change the social and organizational conditions within which participants operate by using their perspectives as active participants to develop alternative possibilities. As such, this research method has significant potential for management researchers in providing the means for unheard organizational members to voice their perspectives: a central component, we argue, in knowledge co‐production. Based on a participatory study of care quality in elder care institutions, we examine in detail how participatory organizational research can enable voice and explore some of the structural limitations particularly in respect of research ethics.     

Embracing the Paradox of Interorganizational Value Co‐creation–Value Capture: A Literature Review towards Paradox Resolution

This study reviews literature on paradoxical tensions between value co‐creation and capture in interorganizational relationships (IORs). The purpose of this review is to make a re‐evaluation of the literature by engaging a paradox theory lens, thereby identifying factors that render tensions salient and factors that lead to virtuous or vicious cycles. This review of 143 articles reveals factors that make tensions salient: these relate to plurality (e.g. coopetition), scarcity (e.g. lack of experience with IORs), change (e.g. changes in collaboration scope) or combinations thereof (e.g. IORs in weak appropriability regimes). Results also uncover factors that resolve paradoxical tensions of value co‐creation and capture, thus spurring virtuous cycles (e.g. carefully mixing trust and contracts), as well as factors that promote vicious cycles, owing to the emphasis on either value co‐creation or capture (e.g. myopia of learning). This review further reveals a new category of factors that may stimulate either virtuous or vicious cycles, depending on the extent to which they are enforced. This finding expands the value co‐creation–capture paradox resolution and brings to light new dynamics in the paradox framework of dynamic equilibrium. This study thus contributes by: (1) reassessing the existing literature and applying paradox theory to the well‐known hazard of value co‐creation and capture; (2) highlighting factors that amplify paradoxical tensions related to this hazard; and (3) outlining factors that help solve the paradox by embracing its contradictory poles and factors that hinder paradox resolution by emphasizing either value co‐creation or appropriation.     

The Speed of Experience: The Co‐narrative Method in Experience Economy Education

This paper proposes a management learning technique called the co‐narrative method. This approach is seen as a useful means of capturing the subtler nuances of experience economy interactions, as well as learning ethics and corporate social responsibility, by nurturing empathy and compassion. A method is presented based on the example of the idea of slow as fast side of organizational and festival experiences, which is explored through autoethnographic studies of participation in experience economy events. It builds upon insights into improving management education through the use of the humanistic approach. The so‐called co‐narrative method is based on a syzygic mode uniting the two oppositions (while preserving their inherent contradictions). It encourages its users to exercise understanding of the experience of the Other, while teaching about concrete cases and events.     

Optimal Capital Taxation,Labour Unions,and the Hold‐Up Problem

This document examines optimal capital taxation with wage‐setting labour unions when the government taxes consumption, labour, and capital. The results are as follows. If unions can commit themselves to particular wages for a long period, then there is no hold‐up problem. Otherwise, the hold‐up problem creates a positive link from capital accumulation to the wage. The optimal labour subsidy is positive and greater in the presence than in the absence of the hold‐up problem. The optimal capital subsidy is zero in the absence, but positive in the presence of the hold‐up problem.     

Supply Chain Knowledge and Performance: A Meta‐Analysis

Many firms make significant investments into developing and managing knowledge within their supply chains. Such investments are often prudent because studies indicate that supply chain knowledge (SCK) has a positive influence on performance. Key questions still surround the SCK–performance relationship, however. First, what is the overall relationship between SCK and performance? Second, under what conditions is the relationship stronger or weaker? To address these questions, we applied meta‐analysis to 35 studies of the SCK–performance relationship that collectively include more than 8,400 firms. Our conservative estimate is that the effect size of the overall relationship is  = .39. We also find that the SCK–performance relationship is stronger when (i) examining operational performance, (ii) gathering data from more than one supply chain node, (iii) gathering data from multiple countries, (iv) examining service industries, and (v) among more recently published studies. We also found that studies that embraced a single theory base (as opposed to using multiple ones) had a stronger SCK–performance relationship. Looking to the future, our meta‐analysis highlights the need for studies to (i) include lags between the measurement of SCK and performance, (ii) gather upstream data when examining innovation, (iii) examine SCK within emerging countries, and (iv) provide much more information relative to the nuances of the SCK examined.     

A Causality Analysis of Economic Growth and Union Density in European Countries

In this paper, we analyse the relationship between union density and economic growth using a Granger causality analysis and shocks analysis with vector autoregression model. We find that the Granger causality goes from the growth rate to the unionization rate in four of the 11 European countries under study. France bucks the trend: it is the only country in which union density influences economic growth, moreover in a positive way.     

‘Birds of a Feather Flock Together’: The Impact of Choice of Spouse on Family Labor Income Inequality

Abstract. This paper analyzes to what extent the rise in women's labor force participation has led to ‘flocking together’, i.e. whether women with high labor income tend to be married to men with high labor income, or vice versa. Based on the decomposition of the Gini coefficient and a related index for the extent of ‘flocking together’ applied to labor income data for Norway for the period 1973–97, we find a tendency for ‘flocking together’ for all married couples, and married couples with two labor incomes.