The Decline in Shared Collective Conscience as Found in the Shifting Norms and Values of Etiquette Manuals

In this article we address Emile Durkheim's theory that norms and values become more generalized and abstract in a society as it becomes more complex and differentiated. To test Durkheim's theory we examine etiquette manuals—the common texts that define normative manners and morals in American society. We perform a deductive content analysis on past and present etiquette manuals to understand what changes have occurred regarding shifting behavioral norms and values over time. Our findings suggest that a change has occurred in the presentation and language of contemporary etiquette manuals, reflecting a greater change in the normative order. We find—as Durkheim would expect—that three main shifts have occurred: a shift from specific to general expectations for behavior in social settings, a shift from demanding to more suggestive rules of behavior in social situations, and a weakening in the severity of sanctions for breaches of etiquette.     

追寻神圣社会:纪念爱弥尔·涂尔干逝世一百周年

本文试图从涂尔干所揭示的失范之现代性内在根源入手,详细剖解个人主义、民族主义以及表现为绝对国家意志的帝国主义的深刻的社会原因,并以此来表明涂尔干的核心思想任务,是在构成现代社会的所有要件之间,重新搭建起多重的连结纽带,使人重新回到具体的社会之中,使政治重新落实在具体的社会之中。为了全面揭示群体与国家、职业与民主、道德与政治的内在关联,涂尔干分别从法团、国家、财产、契约四个规范性范畴出发,对社会的性质做了历史论证。不仅如此,涂尔干在其宗教研究中,还从本体论、实在论、知识论和伦理学四个方面对社会存在做了证明。最后,本文还表明,涂尔干对教育核心议题的讨论,是试图解决道德的凝聚,乃至文明内在精神的传承等问题。本文希望以此来纪念这位思想的集大成者逝世一百周年。     

Determinate attitudes and indeterminate norms

The aim of this paper is to offer a version of social normative pragmatism – that is, the approach that takes norms to be the result of shared practices – that comes closer to social reality than its cousins in the philosophy of language and the philosophy of mind. The purpose is presenting a framework that can be useful for social theorists sympathetic to normative concepts. This version introduces the concepts of the adoption of the normative stance, the projective structure of evaluation and a sketch of a theory of normative force in terms of accumulation of normative attitude. In order to motivate this conceptual tools, we present them as allowing us to overcome the traditional skeptical challenge put forward by Kripke.     

What are the Links Between Theory of Mind and Social Relations? Review,Reflections and New Directions for Studies of Typical and Atypical Development

Twenty years after research on children's ‘theory of mind’ began, this field continues to be a leading influence in the study of developmental psychology and psychopathology. In this review we examine the contribution of research on children's theories of mind to our understanding of children's developing social relationships. Evidence shows that for both typical and atypical populations this relationship is neither uniform nor unidirectional. Theory‐of‐mind skills are multifaceted and the nature of the developmental relationship between different aspects is not yet known, and there is evidence that theory‐of‐mind skills both transform and are transformed by interpersonal and family relationships and by language communities. To understand the multifaceted and complex nature of development in this area, we need clearer definitions of the skills under investigation, as well as research designs that capture the transactional nature of the relationship between theory of mind and social relations. Addressing these issues should help to clarify (i) the processes by which children's developing understanding of others is influenced by the social environment, and (ii) issues concerning the specificity of theory‐of‐mind impairments in atypical populations and the processes by which these impairments develop.     

A theory of “popular political legitimation”: A dual-process model approach to legitimation and political socialization

How do everyday people—or actors who do not occupy positions of political authority—legitimate political systems? Responding to this question, I use work from sociology, political science, and cognitive science to build a theory of “Popular Political Legitimation” (PPL)—defined as everyday people's legitimation of a political system. To answer how PPL happens, we must answer two sub-questions that address legitimacy as a normative phenomenon: 1) What are the processes of socialization through which individuals learn the norms, widely held beliefs, and values that legitimate a political system? 2) How do individuals subsequently use these norms, widely held beliefs, and/or values in their own legitimations of a political system? Thus, we see that a model of socialization is central to understanding how PPL happens. I proceed in four steps. First, I review the literature on political legitimation. Next, I review the literature on political socialization. Third, to address gaps in the two aforementioned literatures concerning a model of socialization that explains legitimation, I turn to neuroscience (for reviews see Greene, 2017; Cushman, 2020) and psychology to review models of socialization and rationalization. Finally, I synthesize these literatures to develop a theory of political socialization and how it generates PPL.     

Why Do the Privileged Resort to Oppression? A Look at Some Intragroup Factors

This article shows that (intergroup) oppression can be strategically motivated by (intragroup) processes. It is often assumed that high-status groups oppress when their social position is declining (relative deprivation). Counterintuitively, research shows that oppression also occurs when their position is improving (gratification): a curvilinear relationship referred to as "the v-curve effect." We test the hypothesis that this relationship is due to intragroup processes within the high-status group: individuals respond strategically to elite norms. Two experiments manipulated participants' future prospects: to join the nation's elite in future (relative gratification), social stasis, or status decline (relative deprivation, Study 2). Elite norms toward immigrants (positive, negative) were manipulated independently. The curvilinear relationship was only found when norms were negative. In other words, those who anticipate joining the elite tailor their actions to the norms of their prospective in-group.     

历史个体与普遍历史:历史主义脉络中的社会变迁

发端于18世纪的德国历史主义思想脉络中,包含着一种从历史个体到历史个体的普遍历史解释模式。这种独特的社会变迁思想是在同启蒙思想的对话中确立起来的。起先包裹在天意历史论的目的论外衣中,后来历史主义的发展逐步脱去了这层外衣,在解释社会学传统中演变成了一种经验科学意义上的独特社会变迁思想。随着社会理论对韦伯的去历史化,蕴含在解释社会学中的这种社会变迁思想逐渐被淹没了。有鉴于此,本文将在赫尔德以来的历史主义脉络节点中梳理这种社会变迁思想的形成。     

Theorizing Political Psychology: Doing Integrative Social Science Under the Condition of Postmodernity

The field of political psychology, like the social sciences more generally, is being challenged. New theoretical direction is being demanded from within and a greater epistemological sophistication and ethical relevance is being demanded from without. In response, an outline for a reconstructed political psychology is offered here. To begin, a theoretical framework for a truly integrative political psychology is sketched. In the attempt to transcend the reductionist quality of cross-disciplinary or multidisciplinary inquiry, the theoretical approach offered here emphasizes the dually structured quality of social life as the singular product of both organizing social structures and defining discourse communities on the one hand and motivated, thinking individuals on the other. To further this theoretical effort, meta-theoretical considerations are addressed. The modernist-postmodernist debate regarding the status of truth and value is used as a point of departure for constructing the epistemological foundation for political psychology. In this light, structural pragmatic guidelines for theory construction, empirical research and normative inquiry are presented. While the focus remains on political psychology in particular, it is assumed that the criticisms of present research and the suggestions for future inquiry apply to the social sciences more generally.     

The logical structure of applied social science

In the present article the logical structure of applied social sciences will be discussed. Applied sciences don't regard causes and effects but only means and ends. Therefore the logical structure of means-end-argumentations in social sciences will be shown. One can perceive also the important part of normative statements. In summarizing, we can declare that in social sciences there is partly a need to reflect on the postulate of a value-free social science. But it is not our purpose to introduce normative statements as scientific ones. What counts is a liberal attitude towards all realizable norms.     

Illustrating behavioral principles with examples from demography: the causal analysis of differences in fertility

This article evaluates the 3 general frames of reference used in analyzing the nonphysiologic origins of fertility differences: utility, normative, and drift. It is suggested that the drift model overcomes some of the limitations of the other 2 models and provides a closer approximation to behavioral realities. Implicit in the utility model is the assumption that people's behavior expresses their preferences amony available alternatives. It is further assumed that the individual has available a range of possible behaviors, means to the atgtainment of behavioral goals chosen, and reliable information concerning the likely consequences of a given choice. A weakness of this approach has been its rather parochial concentration on economic costs and benefits and its failure to take account of the ways these costs and benefits are differentially assessed and weighted by different populations. The normative model emphasizes the individual's group affiliations and social roles. A criticism of this model is that it ignores the possibility of conflict among the different norms associated with an individual's various roles or among interacting individuals such as husbands and wives. Together, the utility and normative models imply the existence of more conscious rationality in human behavior than may actually be the case. The 3rd model, drift, emphasizes the ongoing, developmental, incemental nature of human behavior. It posits a behavior that begins almost by accident at some point within the range of possible and allowable behaviors, then moves toward conslusion in a manner largely imperceptible to the actor. The idea of drift is compatible with the observation that social structures are constantly changed while at the same time providing the framework within which reproducing and changing behaviors can unfold. In contrast to the utility and normative models, which tend to be static, the drift model emphasizes both change and the manner in which change takes place.     

Epistemological problems and the personality and social system in social psychology

If we understand social psychology to be an area where sociology and psychology overlap, or more precisely where we try to explain interaction on the basis of psychological and sociological propositions and concepts, we have singled out a field that should be quite challenging not only in theory and method but in the fundamental questions it raises for both sociology and psychology. Actually, the discipline is not that well integrated and is constituted by such disparate approaches as reinforcement theory, field theory, role theory, small group theory, game theory and psychoanalysis. Many sociologists have abandoned the field altogether. Nor have the proponents of these sub-fields made much effort to consolidate, integrate or reconcile their methodologies. Epistemological questions have been notably absent and only now have arguments from the philosophy of science point of view reemerged to revive the critical and potentially fruitful methodological discussions of earlier theorists (F. Allport; Lewin; Mead; Simmel) and their more recent followers (Homans; Malewski). After considering epistemological problems dealing with the generality of theory and explanation, behavioristic vs. action approaches, operational and model structural implications, we want to argue for a better understanding of social system variables besides those of the personality system and of system theory in general. In our discussion we use examples from the area of sport because it composes a complex system, that is not too difficult to observe at the same time that it shows in relative clarity all of the different levels of an action system. It has, furthermore, many features of an almost experimental design in a natural field. In so far it is a model area to allow due consideration for our demand that social psychology rediscover the method of field studies. This will help to reverse the trend characterized by a general neglect of theory that has resulted from behavioral dogmatism and the expedience of research pragmatism based mostly on two-variable linear models. This is not to say that we disfavor rigorous research design and data analysis - to the contrary. We just want it to be done in the context of broader theoretical concerns and in clear recognition of the pitfalls of operationalism and the merits of action theory.     

Explaining with Intentional Omissions

Determining the human activity that social processes consist in is a central task for the philosophy of the social sciences. This paper asks: which conception of agency arising from contemporary action theory is the most suitable for social science explanation? It is argued that a movement-centered, Davidsonian picture of agency is not suitable for explaining certain social processes such as strikes and boycotts because, instead of intentional bodily movements, they are explained by the intentional omissions of agents. I propose that instead of intentional bodily movements, social processes are better explained by phenomena in which an agent is taking an active relation both to her mental or bodily processes as well as to what is happening around her. Thus, to fully explain social processes, a comprehensive theory of agency that can account for intentional actions and intentional omissions and a conception of agency that includes both materialist and volitionalist aspects is needed.     

Criteria for determining illegality and the theory of anti-value acts （Handlungsunwert）： with a discussion of the standpoint of contemporary Chinese criminal jurisprudence

违法性论是刑法理论的试金石,研究违法性判断的基准问题,对于形成学派论争,全面推进中国刑法学的发展有重大意义。结果无价值论和行为无价值论思考违法性问题的路径不同,由此导致犯罪成立范围、认定犯罪过程、犯罪和刑罚的关系、刑法和社会的关联性都不相同。（二元的）行为无价值论充分考虑特定时期的社会现实、规范期待,注重刑法的行为引导功能,是合理的理论。根据这种违法性论,违法性判断的核心是行为,法益侵害只是决定“行为性质”的要素;刑法不是单纯为了弥补损害,而要着眼于让国民养成规范意识,防止损害再次发生。当代中国刑法学应当以（二元的）行为无价值论为基点来建构,以回应社会需要,促进公众的规范认同。     

Examining Organizational Functioning Through the Lens of Complexity Theory Using System Dynamics Modeling

ABSTRACT

The methodologies associated with complexity theory might serve as an adjunct to some of our more traditional behavioral social science research methods. While the latter has a well-established history in social work, the approaches related to complexity theory are just now gaining a foothold. One such approach is system dynamics modeling. This article will describe the application of system dynamics modeling to a well-known early intervention program. The manner in which it complements traditional research approaches will be discussed, and its unique contribution to understanding the organizational aspects of complexity theory will be highlighted.     

Social risk assessment and social capital: A significant parameter for the formation of climate change policies

Public policy issues arising from climate change projections are becoming increasingly important in terms of the range and the scope of their effects. In order to effectively confront them it is important to address social, environmental and economic aspects as fully as possible in decision-making processes. In this context, social risk assessment techniques have begun to be applied to explore citizens’ risk perceptions of climate change projections. The present study aims to contribute to this area by examining the influence of four social capital parameters (social trust, institutional trust, social norms and social networks) on public risk perceptions of climate change. An empirical study was conducted for this purpose in Greece's fourth largest city, Heraklion. Results demonstrate that social capital is a significant explanatory parameter for citizens’ risk perceptions. Specifically, individuals with lower levels of social capital tend to perceive higher risks from climate change impacts. The most important parameter explaining this result is the low level of institutional trust, revealing that Heraklion's citizens do not believe that existing public institutions will be able to effectively manage projected climate change impacts.     

Social Policy and the Discipline of Social Administration

The last ten years have seen a spate of books analysing social policy in terms of ideologies or models of welfare. These models, which combine an explanatory or scientific and a normative or value component, offer the discipline of social administration a terrain or base of its own from which it can legitimately explore a range of normative and scientific issues. It is suggested that the central task of social policy analysis, at the highest level of generality of the discipline, is to tease out the relevant normative and factual propositions or assumptions underlying these models and subject them to close scrutiny. In this the discipline would largely be following, but also extending somewhat, the agenda for social administration outlined by Richard Titmuss in 1968.     

Researching Quality of Life in Early Old Age: The Importance of the Sociological Dimension

Measurement of quality of life has become a major feature of much social and epidemiological research in health and social care settings. It is seen as an important alternative to more process‐based outcome measures but remains poorly defined. A major weakness is the absence of any coherent theoretical underpinning whether sociological, psychological or philosophical. Into this conceptual vacuum proxies for quality of life have been introduced. Quality of life [QoL] research into older populations has focused on measures of health and illness as equivalents of QoL. This paper argues that this response is inadequate as it reduces old age to a dimension of health, disability and disease. Instead, we argue that it is necessary to create a theoretically based measure of QoL in early old age which relates to those aspects of later life that are not defined by health. We present a model of QoL that is derived from aspects of contemporary social theory as they relate to the ontology of late modernity. In particular, we utilize a model based upon needs satisfaction. The model contains four domains: Control, Autonomy, Pleasure and Self‐realization. The measure consists of a 19‐item scale. The four domains load on to a single latent QoL factor. We argue that the CASP 19 scale offers an approach to QoL that integrates a sociologically based model of quality of life with a meaningful and valid research instrument.     

职业场—企业社会工作实践的困惑与思索

职业场中的种种矛盾与冲突究其实质是在于工业化体系与人性生活需求的对峙与并存。企业社会工作实践所要面对的就是这一矛盾反映出的种种员工问题、社会政策、企业社会责任的落实与关怀。在这个实践之中,社会工作专业伦理与社会伦理以及社会学理论建设诸方面存在着不同程度的冲突与悖论,从而产生了很多困惑。解决这些困惑,思索其理论与实践的发展,则是我国企业社会工作当前所要担当的任务。     

Stewardship of research resources

Most accounts of research ethics focus on the importance of a handful of ethical and epistemological norms for the conduct of science, such as honesty, integrity, transparency, accountability, objectivity, collegiality, fairness, social responsibility, but have little to say about another, less well-known norm that also deserves attention: stewardship of research resources. Many of the behaviors and practices that are widely regarded as unethical or ethically questionable involve wasting or misusing money, time, and other resources. While good stewardship of resources may not be as crucial to the ethics of science as other norms, it is an important consideration that scientists should keep in mind when managing their own resources or mentoring students and trainees in the responsible conduct of research. Additional investigation into the ethics of stewardship may help us better understand how this norm interacts with other research norms and guides scientific conduct.     

Collective Action—and Then What?

Two aspects of the social psychology of collective action are of particular interest to social movement organizers and activists: how to motivate people to engage in collective action, and how to use collective action to create social change. The second question remains almost untouched within social psychology. The present article delineates research from political science and sociology concerning variables that moderate the effectiveness of collective action and maps these variables against intergroup research. Within intergroup social psychology, there is a theoretical literature on what needs to be done to achieve change (e.g., changing identification, social norms, or perceptions of legitimacy, stability, permeability). The article considers possible testable hypotheses concerning the outcomes of collective action which can be derived from intergroup research and from the synthesis of the three disciplines. For theoreticians and practitioners alike, a program of research which addresses the social-psychological outcomes of collective action and links these to identities, norms, intentions, and support for social change in bystanders, protagonists, and opponents has a great deal of interest.