Shiftwork locus of control: Scale development

Abstract

Shiftwork is a significant feature of occupational life for many people. It can have disruptive effects on sleep, health, social activity and performance. It is likely that beliefs about personal control will influence the individual-shiftwork relationship. This paper has two aims; first, to put forward the thesis that shiftwork-specific personal control expectancies may moderate the disruptive impact of shiftwork, and second, to report the development and preliminary validation of a shiftwork-specific locus of control scale. The scale demonstrated satisfactory psychominary qualities in terms of factor structure, internal reliability, construct validity and test-retest reliability. Variables associated with better coping with shiftwork such as alertness, flexibility of sleeping habits and the structured use of time correlated positively with shiftwork locus of control. In contrast, shiftwork locus of control was found to be inversely related to shiftwork problems such as sleep disturbance, poor mental well-being and work stress.     

Machine Pacing and Shiftwork

Machine-paced work and shiftwork are highly prevalent working conditions commonly believed to have adverse individual and organizational consequences. This article examines the empirical evidence for such effects, and acknowledges the conceptual and methodological problems which have clearly plagued pacing and shiftwork researchers. The literature on pacing while suggestive of overall health and performance effects indicates that the magnitude of such effects are in all likelihood situationally and invididually determined. Very little is known, however, about such interactions. Similarly, the shiftwork literature is contradictory and inconclusive. Shiftwork appears to affect both the quality and quantity of sleep and to disrupt a wide range of physiological and behavioral circadian rhythms. The long-term consequences of these effects are still not known.     

Sleep and napping in young shiftworkers: A 5-year follow-up

Abstract

The present study examined sleep characteristics in young workers who entered rapidly rotating shiftwork for the first time and stayed on shifts for 5 years. Data were collected when the subjects had shiftwork experience of approximately 1.5, 3.5 and 5.5 years and a mean age of 22, 24 and 26 years. Data are presented showing significant differences in the main sleep durations between situations within the shift cycle and a small reduction in overall sleep over the observed period, primarily due to a sleep reduction on afternoon shift days. Data on sleep quality did not show any change over this early period of shiftwork exposure. In addition, napping strategies did not change, with the exception of a small increase in those taking naps on night-shift days between 1.5 years and 3.5 years of shiftwork exposure. At all the observed phases there were more young shiftworkers taking a nap on the morning shift days than on the night-shift days. The data suggested that reduced sleeps on morning and night-shift days were not compensated by taking a nap, but rather with an increase in main sleep duration on afternoon shift days and days off. A weak tendency for individuals to be relatively long or short sleepers irrespective of sleep conditions could be seen.     

Interactive effect of individual factors on nurses' health and sleep

There is a tendency in studies concerning individual diferences in shiftwork tolerance to analyse the moderating effect of individual factors separately as if they acted independently. The aim of this study was to examine the interactive effect of individual factors (i.e. morningness, flexibility, languidity, neuroticism, extroversion) on nurses' health and sleep. A hundred female nurses (mean age 25.9 years, SD = 3.7 years) working a 2 × 12-h shift system were chosen from a larger study conducted among Intensive Care Unit staff. All subjects completed the Standard Shiftwork Index. Multiple regression analyses show that interactions of neuroticism and other factors (languidity, morningness) predict the majority of health and sleep complaints rather than neuroticism itself. Correlation analyses revealed that the interaction of neuroticism and languidity correlates higher with some indices of impaired health and sleep disturbances than when these factors are taken separately. The contribution of flexibility together with extroversion in interactions with neuroticism, and with neuroticism and languidity weaken the relations of languidity and neuroticism with health and sleep indices. The results show that some individual features tend to strengthen or counteract one another in relation to symptoms of shiftwork intolerance.     

Interactive effect of individual factors on nurses' health and sleep

Abstract

There is a tendency in studies concerning individual diferences in shiftwork tolerance to analyse the moderating effect of individual factors separately as if they acted independently. The aim of this study was to examine the interactive effect of individual factors (i.e. morningness, flexibility, languidity, neuroticism, extroversion) on nurses' health and sleep. A hundred female nurses (mean age 25.9 years, SD = 3.7 years) working a 2 × 12-h shift system were chosen from a larger study conducted among Intensive Care Unit staff. All subjects completed the Standard Shiftwork Index. Multiple regression analyses show that interactions of neuroticism and other factors (languidity, morningness) predict the majority of health and sleep complaints rather than neuroticism itself. Correlation analyses revealed that the interaction of neuroticism and languidity correlates higher with some indices of impaired health and sleep disturbances than when these factors are taken separately. The contribution of flexibility together with extroversion in interactions with neuroticism, and with neuroticism and languidity weaken the relations of languidity and neuroticism with health and sleep indices. The results show that some individual features tend to strengthen or counteract one another in relation to symptoms of shiftwork intolerance.     

Health, well-being and burnout of ICU nurses on 12- and 8-h shifts

It is generally agreed that some features of shift systems can influence the extent of well-being and health problems experienced by the workers involved. Extended working days (9-12 h) have been found to aggravate some problems associated with shiftwork, especially when the work is mentally and emotionally demanding. The aim of the study was to compare measures of health, sleep, psychological and social well-being, job satisfaction and burnout of ICU nurses on 12- and 8-h shifts. The groups of subjects were matced for age, length of shiftwork experience, marital status and number of hours worked. the 12-h shift nurses, when compared to their 8-h shift colleagues, experienced more chronic fatigue, cognitive anxiety, sleep disturbance and emotional exhaustion. Job satisfaction seems to be independent of the shift duration. The nurses on 12-h shifts reported less social and domestic disruption than those on 8-h shifts. The 12-h shift nurses showed worse indices of health, well-being and burnout tan the 8-h shift nurses. It is suggested that this may be associated with their longer daily exposure to the stress of work. The increased number of rest days of 12-h shift nurses seems tobe insufficient to dissipate the adverse health and well-being effects that built up over their longer shifts.     

The mediating role of work-to-family conflict in the relationship between shiftwork and depression

Abstract

With significant segments of the working population involved in shiftwork, there is the possibility of serious health outcomes. There are two possible pathways to ill health. In the biological pathway the body's circadian rhythms are affected, leading to physiological disturbances and the inability to cope. By contrast, the aim of this study is to elucidate a social pathway by which shiftwork may lead to mental ill health. It examines the mediating influence of work-to-family conflict in the association between shiftwork and depression. Gender differences are also investigated. The sample included 2,931 Canadian respondents with a spouse and at least one child living at home. Close to 28% of respondents were involved in some form of shiftwork. Structural equation modelling supported partial mediation through work-to-family conflict. Further analyses found that mediation was supported in sub-samples of male and female respondents. The results, however, suggest that the experience of shiftwork is quite similar for men and women as no significant differences were found between mediating models. Overall, the findings support the social explanation of the effect of shiftwork on mental health, but they do not rule out other social or biological pathways.     

A managerial and personal control model: predictions of work alienation and organizational commitment in Hungary

This article examines the influence of managerial and personal control upon work-related alienation and organizational commitment in the Eastern-European nation of Hungary. The research identifies the extent to which Western management theory and practices are relevant to transitional economic nations such as Hungary. We chose leadership and job characteristics as managerial control mechanisms and locus of control as a personal mechanism of control. These categories of control variables have well-established associations to attitudes and behaviors in the Western management literature, but limited evidence has been generated in Hungary. A survey among 395 Hungarian workers in five companies found that leadership, job characteristics, and individual locus of control explained work-related alienation but did not explain organizational commitment. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Is there an optimum number of night shifts? Relationship between sleep, health and well-being

By concentrating on the impact of a specific shift-system feature on the well-being of those concerned, rather than on the impact of the shift system as a whole, one might be able to offer more meaningful suggestions as to what constitutes a better form of shift system. The present study focused on the impact of the number of consecutive night shifts worked on the health and well-being of two groups of nurses (permanent night and rotating shift). All nurses completed a copy of the Standard Shiftwork Index, which is a set of questionnaires designed for comparing the effects of different types of shift system on large groups of workers. It includes measurements of psychological ill-health, physical ill-health, chronic fatigue, social and domestic disruption, attitudes towards shiftwork, sleep quality and sleep habits. Results showed clearly the impact of the number of consecutive nights worked on health and well-being, not directly, but indirectly through the impact on sleep duration and sleep quality. Sleep duration was shown to increase with more consecutive nights worked. This in turn was found to predict sleep quality, which in turn was found to be the stronger direct predictor of psychological and physical ill-health: i.e. better health was associated with longer and better quality sleeps. Explanations in terms of circadian adaptation are discussed.     

Is there an optimum number of night shifts? Relationship between sleep, health and well-being

By concentrating on the impact of a specific shift-system feature on the well-being of those concerned, rather than on the impact of the shift system as a whole, one might be able to offer more meaningful suggestions as to what constitutes a better form of shift system. The present study focused on the impact of the number of consecutive night shifts worked on the health and well-being of two groups of nurses (permanent night and rotating shift). All nurses completed a copy of the Standard Shiftwork Index, which is a set of questionnaires designed for comparing the effects of different types of shift system on large groups of workers. It includes measurements of psychological ill-health, physical ill-health, chronic fatigue, social and domestic disruption, attitudes towards shiftwork, sleep quality and sleep habits. Results showed clearly the impact of the number of consecutive nights worked on health and well-being, not directly, but indirectly through the impact on sleep duration and sleep quality. Sleep duration was shown to increase with more consecutive nights worked. This in turn was found to predict sleep quality, which in turn was found to be the stronger direct predictor of psychological and physical ill-health i.e. better health was associated with longer and better quality sleeps. Explanations in terms of circadian adaptation are discussed.     

Is there an optimum number of night shifts? Relationship between sleep,health and well-being

Abstract

By concentrating on the impact of a specific shift-system feature on the well-being of those concerned, rather than on the impact of the shift system as a whole, one might be able to offer more meaningful suggestions as to what constitutes a better form of shift system. The present study focused on the impact of the number of consecutive night shifts worked on the health and well-being of two groups of nurses (permanent night and rotating shift). All nurses completed a copy of the Standard Shiftwork Index, which is a set of questionnaires designed for comparing the effects of different types of shift system on large groups of workers. It includes measurements of psychological ill-health, physical ill-health, chronic fatigue, social and domestic disruption, attitudes towards shiftwork, sleep quality and sleep habits. Results showed clearly the impact of the number of consecutive nights worked on health and well-being, not directly, but indirectly through the impact on sleep duration and sleep quality. Sleep duration was shown to increase with more consecutive nights worked. This in turn was found to predict sleep quality, which in turn was found to be the stronger direct predictor of psychological and physical ill-health: i.e. better health was associated with longer and better quality sleeps. Explanations in terms of circadian adaptation are discussed.     

Men and women who like continuous shiftwork are more 'hardy': But what does it mean?

Continuous shiftworkers of both genders who like shiftwork and report fewer digestive problems have higher scores on hardiness than those who dislike shiftwork. Whether this is a causal, consequential or accidental relationship requires a longitudinal investigation. It is also not clear how far 'hardiness' is a personality measure, a behavioural style, a coping strategy, or a consequence of the stress of shiftwork.     

Men and women who like continuous shiftwork are more ‘hardy’: But what does it mean?

Abstract

Continuous shiftworkers of both genders who like shiftwork and report fewer digestive problems have higher scores on hardiness than those who dislike shiftwork. Whether this is a causal, consequential or accidental relationship requires a longitudinal investigation. It is also not clear how far ‘hardiness’ is a personality measure, a behavioural style, a coping strategy, or a consequence of the stress of shiftwork.     

The occupational stress indicator locus of control scale: Should this be regarded as a state rather than trait measure?

Robertson et al (1990) concluded that the Occupational Stress Indicator's (OSI) locus of control scale did not have an acceptable level of validity. The present study compared two groups of health service employees, categorized on the basis of their obtained OSI locus of control scale scores as having 'high' versus 'low' control, on a number of other OSI scales. Subjects who regard themselves as having 'high' control reported significantly less work pressure, employed certain coping strategies more frequently, reported lower ill health scores and were more job satisfied. The findings are theoretically consistent with the argument that the OSI locus of control scale is a subjective measure of an individual's appraisal of their control at work (i.e. a state measure) rather than a trait construct as measured by Rotter's scale (as used in the OSI validity study by Robertson et al).     

On-shift and daily variations in self-report and performance measures in rotating-shift and permanent night nurses

An intensive study was conducted of the influence of type of shift system, type of shift, and time-into-shift on a battery of on-shift and daily measures obtained from 61 female nurses over a 28-day period. Thirty-two rotating-shift nurses and 28 permanent night nurses recorded data on a hand-held computer at the start and end of each day, and every 2-h during their shifts. The measures included a sleep diary, self-ratings of mood, workload, and personal disruption, and two cognitive performance tasks. These results suggest that the permanent night nurses were no worse off and for some measures were actually better off than the rotating-shift nurses after controlling for differences in age and shiftwork experience; the night-shift was problematic for the rotating-shift nurses but so was the early shift; mood deteriorated and reaction time got slower over the course of the night-shift but extra long responses (which may correspond to lapses of attention) and rated workload were lower on the night-shift. The relatively large number of consecutive night-shifts worked by the rotating-shift nurses, the uneven distribution of workload between shifts, and the long night-shift may have contributed to these results.     

Does 'hardiness' predict adaptation to shiftwork?

This longitudinal study examined whether the dimensions of hardiness (commitment, control and challenge) predicted psychological symptoms and dissatisfaction with shiftwork, and whether or not the relationships identified were confounded with neuroticism and extraversion. Female nurses were studied during their first 15 months of shiftwork. Thirty-six nurses worked on a 2-shift (day and evening) schedule throughout and 66 transferred from the 2-shift schedule to a 3-shift (day, evening and night) schedule after 6 months. Hardiness, neuroticism, extraversion and symptoms were measured before the respondents began shiftwork (Stage 1). Symptoms and dissatisfaction were measured after 6 months (Stage 2) and 15 months (Stage 3). Multiple regressions indicated that the hardiness dimensions did not predict dissatisfaction at Stages 2 or 3, or symptoms at Stage 3. They also failed to buffer the effect of night-work on symptoms. However, commitment did predict symptoms at Stages 1 and 2 and challenge predicted symptoms at Stage 2. Although these effects were confounded with neuroticism, commitment showed weak evidence of independent prediction. In general, hardiness was a very poor predictor of shiftwork tolerance.     

Trends in the participatory process of changing shiftwork arrangements

Abstract

A recent survey by the International Labour Office on changing shiftwork arrangements showed that there were three essential steps commonly taken in the change process in different countries. They could be identified as: (1) group study of operational requirements and workers' needs; (2) establishing feasible options; and (3) consensus building while acting on conflicting interests. The change process was more successful when it was provided with concrete support. Attention is drawn to three major aspects of such support: (a) gathering data about operational requirements of the enterprise and workers' needs and preferences (by applying practical methods such as questionnaire surveys, interviews, group discussion and workshops); (b) support for the participatory development of plans for new arrangements (by organizing a group involving workers' representatives); and (c) training support for facilitating the group work and bargaining required for consensus building. Locally adapted training support is necessary particularly about: (1) understanding shiftwork effects and generally accepted guidelines; (2) how to find feasible options based on gathered data and these guidelines; and (3) how to cope with shiftwork. Thus support from people experienced in facilitating the well-informed, participatory process of change will need to be developed for promoting the improvement of shiftworking conditions.     

The impact of shiftwork on personnel at a nuclear power plant: An exploratory survey study

Shiftwork may constitute an additional risk factor in high-hazard industries where system failure could exact heavy human, environmental and economic costs. This exploratory survey study examined the impact of shiftwork upon nuclear power plant workers' perceived health, sleep, and social problem, as well as levels of alertness. Overall, the night shik proved to be the most problematic in ternis of decreases in alertness, sleep duration and quality, and disruptions to health, social and family life. The permanent shift preferences of the shiftworkers were also explored to establish the practicability of introducing a theoretically safer permanent mght shdt at such a facility. Importantly, the small proportion of the sample who showed a preference for a pemianent night shift was insufficient to provide operational cover. Although these shtftworkers reported experiencing less disruption on the night shift than those who would choose to work a permanent day shift, their preference appeared to be based upon a greater esprit de corps on this shift rather than on any predisposing individual characteristics. These results have practical implications for work scheduling in high-hazard industries.

The present study investigates the dimensional structure of the psychosocial work environment as assessed by Karasek's job characteristics scales and a set of factorial scales derived from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) observers' ratings of occupational characteristics for census occupations. Scale scores on the Karasek and DOT were linked to information on occupation from the Epidemiologc Catchment Area (ECA) study sample. Scale intercorreladons and factor analysis were performed on those ECA subjects who reported ever having a full-time job (n=11,789). DOT'sS Substantive Complexity scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Skill Discretion and Decision Authority scales, and DOT's Physical Demands and Hazards scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Physical Demands scale. In addition, the DOT system compared to the Karasek system seems to assess psychosocial work domains less characteristic of traditional industrial jobs (interpersonal stress, expressive work). The content validity of the Karasek scales might be increased with the assessment of these domains. Giving support to Karasek's Demand/Control Model, the factor structure of the psychosocial work enviromnent in the probability sample of five US metropolitan populations yielded two major dimensions: Control, and Physical Demands.     

人格特质、组织承诺与离职意图关系的实证研究

通过对中国联通安徽分公司131名雇员进行实证分析,考察了个人属性、内外控型人格特质、组织承诺与雇员离职意图的关系。结果发现组织承诺、内外控人格特质对离职意图有显著影响,个人属性中除婚否外,其他属性对离职意图也有显著影响。推测组织承诺将极有可能是个人属性与离职意图间的中介变量,并且对内外控人格特质与离职意图之间的关系具有调节作用。     

On-shift and daily variations in self-report and performance measures in rotating-shift and permanent night nurses

Abstract

An intensive study was conducted of the influence of type of shift system, type of shift, and time-into-shift on a battery of on-shift and daily measures obtained from 61 female nurses over a 28-day period. Thirty-two rotating-shift nurses and 28 permanent night nurses recorded data on a hand-held computer at the start and end of each day, and every 2-h during their shifts. The measures included a sleep diary, self-ratings of mood, workload, and personal disruption, and two cognitive performance tasks. These results suggest that the permanent night nurses were no worse off and for some measures were actually better off than the rotating-shift nurses after controlling for differences in age and shiftwork experience; the night-shift was problematic for the rotating-shift nurses but so was the early shift; mood deteriorated and reaction time got slower over the course of the night-shift but extra long responses (which may correspond to lapses of attention) and rated workload were lower on the night-shift. The relatively large number of consecutive night-shifts worked by the rotating-shift nurses, the uneven distribution of workload between shifts, and the long night-shift may have contributed to these results.