National and international approaches in social reporting

National and international approaches in social reporting in western Europe are described. The paper starts with the outline of current activities in international organizations. The competing national approaches are discussed. Further topics are the sources and products of social reporting; the plurality of actors in social reporting, and different ways of its institutionalization. The only incomplete diffusion of social reporting in Western Europe is described and some hypotheses are offered for an explanation. The conclusion points that there will be a new surge of social reporting in Europe in the 1990s. As a basis for its argumentation the paper presents rich tables on social surveys and a bibliography on social reporting by actor.This paper was presented at the workshop onSocial Statistics and Social Reporting in and for Europe, Mannheim, Germany, November 28–29 1991, organized by theMannheim Centre for European Social Research (MZES) and theCentre for Survey Research and Methodology (ZUMA), Mannheim.     

Toward a reappraisal of social indicators for housing in developing nations

The need for social indicators to monitor and evaluate progress in the achievement of certain predetermined goals is now very evident. However, the design and construction of these indiactors still leave much to be desired. This paper analyzes the application of social indicators for housing in the context of the developing nations. The problem of changing standards of acceptable housing over time and the different images and needs of the diverse inhabitants bring the validity of present indicators for housing into question and at least, point out the need for talking social and cultural variables into consideration.     

The U.S. federal effort in developing social indicators

As an introduction to this issue, some historical background of the effort of the U.S. Federal goverment in tracking social trends and making use of social indicators is reviewed. The 1934 study, Recent Social Trends in the United States, and the monographs analyzing demographic trends sponsored by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, are seen as antecedents to the current support accorded what has become a kind of triennial Social Indicators publications. The three subject-matter social indicators volumes of the Federal government — Science Indicators, The Condition of Education and Health: U.S.A. — are reviewed in this volume, and the programs of several other agencies, the Bureau. etc., to develop and communicate social indicators are discussed. The forecast for the future of social indicators includes the development of social accounts, the improvement of models that have criterion social indicators as the dependent variable, and the appreciation of the statistical system to provide the information needed for improved monitorship and understanding. These are seen as joint endeavors of the public and private sectors.     

The social meaning of social indicators

While new modes of data processing have provided reams of data, there has been relatively less effort in seeking to comprehend the social meaning of results of empirical work. A set of previously developed indicators of urban social structure is here examined for its link to theory, and to the social structure of the city itself. The original indicators (size, social class, racial composition and community maturity) were empirically derived. In this paper, each is taken in turn, and explored with respect to several possible social meanings. Size, for example, is considered to be itself an indicator, and an imperfect one, for system complexity; percent non-white is seen to be itself an indicator for a slowdown in the mobility process, or a slower social metabolism. These and other results are suggestions, with illustrations, but not conclusive support, from other than the original data. While it is hoped that the theoretical suggestions may themselves be of interest, it is also hoped that approach itself can indicate the fertility and usefulness of going back to theory once empirical measures have been developed.     

Some neglected social indicators

The attention now being given in the social sciences to time series indicators that measure the ‘Social Health’ of the nation is a most welcome development. Too often, sweeping claims of social change have very little hard supporting evidence. The new trend indicators offer the opportunity for more rigorous analysis of diverse subjects than is often employed in the ‘soft sciences’. Public opinion indicators show a decline in favor for U.S. business which has resulted in Congressional legislation of business, labor reform, restrictions on the environment, consumerism, and inflation. More restrictions can be expected if the social indicators are correct. Political indicators tell us that Republican party loyalty and allegiance have steadily declined since the 1950s and perhaps the ‘emerging Republican majority’ is merely a myth. There are vast implications to be derived from indicators that show the birth rate nearing zero population growth; religion steadily losing influence in America over the past 30 years; and, the youth are far more sober than the rebellious few who draw mass media attention. Social indicators have been very predictive of the future but largely ignored. A clearinghouse is needed to systematically monitor existing social indicators to avoid waste, duplication and downright reglect of important information.     

Time-use auditing: An approach to validating social indicators

Following McCal,, ‘quality of life’ is defined as objective social conditions necessary to the general happiness, where ‘happiness’ is understood in the broad sense, as including all forms of intrinsically valuable experience, not just ‘feeling happy’. The argument is then made that in order for this definition to be fully implemented happiness in the broad sense must also be assessed. The latter half of the paper is devoted to describing a set of procedures, collectively called ‘time-use auditing’, for determining the extent to which an individual person is happy, in the broad sense, in a stated interval of time. Intrinsically valuable experience is analyzed into two dimensions: duration and level. The first is determined by time-budgeting and the second (in a general way) by Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Specifically, Maslow's hierarchy is spelled out in concrete terms by means of “time-use rating structures’, each one specific to a particular time-use category; the authors have written rating structures for adolescents of either sex, ages 12 to 17 inclusive. By way of illustration, an audit of three weeks in the life of a 16-year-old girl is presented. The paper concludes with a discussion of what remains to be done, with special stress on writing time-use rating structures for other age groups and modifying structures already in existence to reflect the values of particular social groups.     

The developing program on social indicators at the U.S. Bureau of the Census

The Bureau of the Census Fiscal Year 1978 Budget provides funds for the first time for beginning a modest but coordinated effort in the field of social indicators and associated activities. The Bureau, buttressed by the advice and participation of other Government agencies, organizations and individuals outside of the Federal establishment long interested in social indicators, intends to:

1. consolidate and extend the development of the concepts and principles advanced previously relating to social indicators;
2. continue and expand the efforts and communication network established at the Office of Management and Budget, in connection with the preparation of the Social Indicators 1973 and 1976 reports;
3. systematically identify and assemble information sets and bits that are contained in censuses and surveys, household and establishment universes, administrative records, studies and projects capable of contributing to social indicator and social accounting development;
4. establish the basic analytic framework and an orderly set of detailed interrelated social accounts capable of being aggregated or disaggregated to appropriate levels of abstraction; and
5. prepare research and analytic studies and make available information generated from the social indicator and social accounting efforts at the Bureau, subject to limitations associated with confidentiality and copyright provisions pertaining to private sources of information.

The organizational structure to carry out this program consists of four primary work centers: information, social indicators, social accounts, and special studies. The structure is designed to provide for continuity of purpose, improve chances for individual achievement and group benefit, and to generate products that will contribute to a more accurate understanding of life experiences in the context of the interplay of social and economic forces and political and juridical institutions.     

The Philippine social indicators project

The Social Indicators Project of the Development Academy of the Philippines (1974) aimed to formulate a measurement system capable of objectively depicting periodic changes in national development. It identified the following as basic Philippine social concerns: (1) Health and Nutrition, (2) Learning, (3) Income and Consumption, (4) Employment, (5) Non-human Productive Resources, (6) Housing, Utilities, and the Environment, (7) Public Safety and Justice, (8) Political Values, and (9) Social Mobility. This list is unique in considering political welfare. A multi-disciplinary research team selected 30 major indicators pertinent to these concerns. Although the majority are already encompassed by the Philippine statistical system, certain new indicators were proposed, including disability due to illness, human capital created by schooling, net beneficial product, families below a food threshold, an index of housing adequacy, an air pollution index for Greater Manila, an index of perceived public safety, indices of political mobility and efficacy, and indices of occupational mobility and perceived social mobility. A survey of 1000 households was used to demonstrate the feasibility of gathering needed new primary data, particularly those attitudinal in nature. An analysis of time series showed that certain aspects of Philippine welfare have been notably improving, but that others have been worsening; the direction of national progress can only be ascertained by admitting value-judgments on the relative importance of the several components of welfare.     

Regional indicators in social planning

Social planning requires the application of indicators as instruments for the measuring of phenomena and processes, for monitoring, and for evaluation. The spatial polarization of socio-economic growth together with individual regional features lead to the emergence of considerable differentiations and disparities. Many of them are perceived in social consciousness as ineqities which require equalization, e.g. living conditions in the sphere of satisfaction of elementary social needs. In order to be effective, social planning must take account of, among other things, the hierarchy of centres and institutions for satisfying social needs, which most frequently amounts to 3 ranks of service (local, regional, national). Each region possesses its own central area (centre) and peripheral area (periphery). The differences between them amount to the emergence of changing socio-economic structures together with a changing dynamic in development and rate of economic growth. The gradation of social needs comprised in social planning corresponds to the hierarchy of service centres. Regional indicators serve the analysis of inter-regional disparities as related to the external “model system”, and are most frequently national means, as well as of intraregional disparities as related to the internal “model system”, which are represented by means of separate regions. The selection of an appropriate set of regional indicators requires a lot of attention. The paper points up the danger of the application of inappropriate regional indicators, which cause distortions in the spatial picture of differentiations.     

Social indicators and social management

The social indicators movement, which has attained world-wide significance, is based on awareness of the increasing necessity for a conscious regulation of social processes, as well as on the successful utilization of the social sciences. Both of these processes depend on: the character of the social order in the different countries, conceptions of the nature and functions of science, and the nature and functions of social indicators. Irrespective of international differences, however, many common problems exist; this makes their discussion possible despite different philosophical and sociological paradigms. Two main problems are addressed: (1) the definition of the concept of “system of social indicators” and especially “unity of objective and subjective indicators”, and (2) the definition of the conditions for their most effective involvement in the purposeful regulation of the social processes.     

Long-term social development of Hungary,measured by social indicators

Social indicators of social structure, urbanisation, level of living and social mobility chances are used to study the development of Hungarian society from the period of capitalist society to the present. The impact of socialist transformations, as well as the influences of the new economic and social conditions appearing in the second half of the 1960's and leading to the economic reforms are especially investigated. Modernization, the decline of inequalities of income and of social mobility opportunities characterized the socialist transformations. Since the mid-60's new tendencies are emerging that need careful investigation.     

Using social indicators to forecast partisan alignments in congressional election years

This paper presents five forecasting equations for political party alignments in the United States during the post-World War II period. Time series data published by various public and survey organizations are utilized to estimate for the years 1948–1974 for party identifications and results of elections for the House of Representatives. The observed equations explain from 86–93% of the variance for the years 1948–1974 and usually allow acceptance of the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation of disturbances. These equations are then employed to make forecasts of the 1976 election year alignments which are compared to observed values. The forecasting equations for 1976 are generally successful, for example, missing the congressional alignments by nine House seats. Some contingent forecasts are made for 1978 election year alignments, based upon certain alternative assumptions about economic and political climates. The equations do not intend to test new theories but rather to apply fairly simple ideas to forecasting trends in public opinion. The authors argue that forecasting equations are useful for anticipating future trends, for planning future research and for assessing whether an unusual event is manifesting itself or alternatively whether a certain trend in public opinion is to be expected from normal processes.     

National indicators for health for all

This paper examines available international data relevant to the World Health Organization model of health status. It explores the possibility of constructing useful measures of health status, health policy, social and economic status, and provision of health care based on these data. A five-factor model is developed and tested empirically using World Bank statistical data from 123 countries. Two factors representing dimensions of country affluence and population density are found to explain 78 percent of the variations in the health status indicator. The countries with health status indicator levels worse than those predicted by the model are predominantly third-world countries; a majority are African. Countries with health status indicator levels better than predicted are mainly in Asia, Latin America, and Europe. Some generally accepted causal relationships were not supported by the findings in this analysis.     

Area-based social indicators: Signed chi-square as an alternative to ratios

This paper examines the statistical requirements of area-based social indicators. It argues that on technical and conceptual grounds conventional ratio-measures fall short as indicators for use in area-based programmes of positive discrimination. Ratios quantify only one of the propositions of area-based policies as identified by Holtermann. The signed chi-square measure expresses all three statistical requirements of social indicators simultaneously, particularly when used with constant areal units. It can also consider subjective value-laden issues in the ranking of geographic areas on a good to bad scale. The concepts will be discussed using the 1971 grid square population census data on unemployment in Humberside.     

Focal local indicators for social program evaluation

An important role for social indicators is in the evaluation of the impact of specific social programs. This requires (in the absence of randomized experiments) extended time-series of social indicators. Such series will usually only be available for administrative records (both public and private). It is in the national interest that these be made flexibly research-retrievable by local region, by frequent time interval, and in fine topical breakdown. The ability to report aggregate statistics retrieved for lists of persons adds still greater precision in program evaluation, and can be done with no loss of privacy and without any release of individual data. For this purpose, the use of uniform individual identification numbers add efficiency without increased risk to privacy.     

Some social indicators for multiple family housing

This research suggests some social indicator candidates for families housed in multiple-family environments. Objective, subjective, and behavioral data sets are all represented in the analysis. This range of social statistics and the utilization of appropriate statistical analysis are viewed as necessary conditions for generating social indicators rather than simply relying on arbitrarily selected social statistics and assume they are indicators. Analysis of 1253 interviews in 88 Alberta subsidized housing projects reveals that subjective data from the tenant category of housing variables rank highest in accounting for present levels of user satisfaction and are viewed therefore as reasonable social indicators with respect to that issue.     

Population issues and social indicators of well-being

Relating demographers' measures of various population characteristics (size, growth/decline, density, age/sex structures, migration, et cetera) to measures of well-being recently developed within the social indicators movement promises to provide new knowledge about the linkage of population and well-being that can enhance decision making about important population issues. A conceptual schema is presented that suggests specific relationships to examine at various levels of aggregation, that helps to classify research already done in this area, and that helps to identify "holes" in the knowledge base. Some special methodological features of research in this area suggest considerable time and care will be required to produce dependable new knowledge. These include: (a) the inherent multilevel nature of the relationships (involving properties of individuals and collectivities); (b) the slow rate at which population characteristics change; (c) the absence of much good well-being data from the past; and (d) the limited nature of the collectivities for which population data are available.