Occupation and Suicide

Objective . Research on occupation and suicide has neglected multivariate models. It is not clear, for example, if persons in alleged "high-risk" occupations have high suicide risk because of occupational stress associated with the occupation or because of the demographic composition of the people in the occupation. The present study explores the relationship between occupation and suicide for 32 occupational groups. Methods . Data are from the national mortality file tapes, which cover 21 states. They refer to 9,499 suicides and 134,386 deaths from all other causes in 1990. Results . Bivariate logistic regression models find a total of 15 occupations with either significantly higher (e.g., dentists, artists, machinists, auto mechanics, and carpenters) or lower (e.g., clerks, elementary school teachers, cooks) risk than the rest of the working-age population. Multivariate models that remove the demographic covariates of occupation find only eight occupations with greater or lower than expected risk of death by suicide. Conclusion . The results underscore the need for demographic controls in the assessment of occupational risk of suicide. They are consistent with a previous study based on data from England. The findings provide the first systematic evidence on the problem for the United States.     

Income inequality between the sexes in male-dominated public health specialties

Four explanations have been developed to explain women's low wage earnings. Human capital and sex-role socialization theories provide individualistic explanation, while dual labor and split labor market analyses focus on labor market segmentation. This research examines structural factors and finds that females in male-dominated public health specialties earn considerably less than males even when “investments” and opportunities” are controlled.     

Compensating Wage Differentials for Fatal and Nonfatal Injury Risk by Gender and Race

Our research examines risk compensation by gender and race using occupation, gender, and race specific fatal and nonfatal injury rates and a data set sufficiently large to produce accurate estimates across fairly narrow groups. The data provide strong evidence that men earn compensating differentials for both fatal and nonfatal injury risk and women earn compensating differentials for nonfatal injury risk. Female wage premiums for nonfatal injury risk exceed male wage premiums by a factor of more than three. Nonfatal injury risk compensation is widespread among the various demographic groups although largest for white women. Fatal injury risk compensation is more isolated with only white and Hispanic males earning significantly higher pay for greater amounts of fatal injury risk.     

中国职业性别隔离的趋势：1982-2010

本文使用1982年、1990年、2000年和2010年四次中国人口普查数据,采用详尽、统一的职业分类系统,探索中国经济体制改革以来职业的性别隔离水平变化趋势及其原因。研究发现,全部职业的性别隔离程度自1982年至今持续上升。非农职业的性别隔离经历了一个先升后降的过程,从20世纪80年代开始提高,自1990年以来不断下降。本研究明确区分了职业结构的变化和性别构成的变化对职业性别隔离的影响,后者对理解性别不平等更有实质意义。     

市场转型与职业性别垂直隔离

在社会学研究中,把男女劳动者进入不同职业称之为职业性别的水平隔离,而男女劳动者在同一类职业中从事地位不同的工作,则是职业性别的垂直隔离。本文关注中国市场转型过程中职业性别垂直隔离的趋势。笔者从2009年八大城市调查数据发现：即使在没有性别水平隔离的中性职业中,也同样存在着性别垂直隔离,且市场转型加剧了职业性别垂直隔离程度。     

Do men leave feminizing occupations?

This article analyzes the 1970 and 1980 Public Use Samples of the decennial census and the 1983 Current Population Survey to determine if the degree of occupational feminization, i.e., the change in the percent female, affects men changing occupations. The results lend some support to the contention that men do not leave feminizing occupations. Men in occupations with the greatest increases in their percentage of female workers had the lowest percentage of men leaving their occupations. As the change in the percent female decreased, the percentage of men leaving the occupation increased. However, occupation was a critical factor in this relationship. While men from nonmanufacturing occupations followed a pattern similar to that found in the entire labor force (described above), men in manufacturing occupations left occupations that feminized the most. Men who changed occupations, in fact, often entered occupations that feminized. In the wake of these findings, I discuss how occupational sex segregation may be maintained.     

Economic Determinants of Voting in an Era of Union Decline*

Objective. The objective of this article is to test competing hypotheses regarding union vote effects by economic sector. Overlooked in existing research on political participation and the labor movement is de‐unionization's sectoral dimension: declining union rolls is a private‐sector phenomenon. The sectoral dimension of union decline carries important political consequences if the influence of unions on voter turnout varies by sector. Method. Using Current Population Survey (CPS) November Voting and Registration Supplements for all national elections between 1984 and 2006, I estimate union vote effects for public‐ and private‐sector employees. Results. The results of the analyses reveal that while union members continue to vote at higher rates than otherwise similar nonmembers, the union effect is nearly three times as large for private‐sector members: private‐sector unionists have a predicted probability of voting 6.7 points higher than nonmembers, while public‐sector members have a predicted probability of voting only 2.4 points higher than nonmembers. Conclusions. Given the small fraction of private‐sector workers now in labor unions, recent fluctuations in the unionization rate have little aggregate affect on turnout. Given that private‐sector union members tend to be less educated and earn less than their public‐sector counterparts, the near disappearance of private‐sector unions from the economic landscape removes an important institutional buffer against political inequality in the United States.     

初婚年龄的影响因素分析——基于CGSS2006的研究

本文基于“2006年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2006）数据,使用事件史分析方法,探讨了城乡居民初婚年龄的变化趋势及其社会经济原因。研究发现,教育、职业和家庭的社会经济特征对初婚年龄有着显著的影响,并表现出性别和户籍差异。教育程度对女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于男性,高等教育对农村户籍女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于城市户籍女性,技术类职业相比非技术非管理类职业,对农村户籍男性居民的初婚年龄有着显著的提前效应。在城市户籍居民中,父母的教育程度越高,子女的初婚年龄越晚;兄弟姐妹越多,初婚年龄越早。对城市和农村户籍居民而言,父亲从事管理类职业对儿子的初婚年龄均有显著的提前效应,而且对农村户籍居民的影响要高于城市户籍居民。     

1982-2000：我国非农职业的性别隔离研究

本文利用中国1982年、1990年和2000年人口普查微观数据和详细的职业类别,探索了改革以来我国非农职业性别隔离的水平及其变化趋势,并表明这种变化对劳动力市场中的性别不平等所造成的影响。数据分析结果显示,20世纪80年代,我国非农职业的性别隔离总体水平呈上升趋势;而在90年代,非农职业的性别隔离水平却呈下降趋势。我们认为导致这种非线性变化趋势的原因在于,在不同的历史阶段,影响职业性别隔离的主要因素发生了变化。我们还发现,不同地区、不同职业类型、不同教育程度或户口性质的就业人员,其职业性别间隔离程度有着明显的差异。     

High School Retention Rates and Social Class

Sixth form retention rates were calculated for each State high school in the Wollongong urban area and correlated with two measures of social class (education and occupation) in each high school feeder area. The study found that retention rates in the Wollongong Urban Area ranged from 12.94% to 31.04%. The rates vary directly with the proportions of the feeder area populations in professional and managerial occupations (r = 0.94, p < 0.01) and with Leaving Certificate or higher education (r = 0.93, p < 0.01). The rates varied inversely with the proportions of feeder area populations employed in trade, unskilled and production process occupations (r = ?0.70, p < 0.05).     

The impact of education and occupation on domestic violence in Saudi Arabia

This study examined the role of education and occupation in connection with domestic violence in Saudi Arabia based on a survey administered to 917 women who had varying years of education and various types of occupations. Results show that education and occupation play a positive role in the life of Saudi women by reducing the level of domestic violence to which they are exposed. Education was found to lower the rate of domestic violence by around 7%. A significant difference in the level of domestic violence was found as well between employed and unemployed women. In Saudi Arabia, having an education and/or earning an income seems to give women more power and higher social status, which in turn appears to lower the level of domestic violence they experience compared with women who do not work, have few years of education or are not currently enrolled in education.     

Financial access and household’s borrowing: Policy perspectives of an emerging economy

This paper analyzes access to finance based on the usage of financial services by Indian households. Based on two rounds of nationally representative All India Debt and Investment Survey (AIDIS) for 2002 and 2012, we examine how access to credit is associated with a household's socioeconomic and demographic characteristics using Heckman’s two-step approach procedure. Our results show that belonging to higher asset quintile groups has a statistically significant positive effect on the household's decision to take loans only from the formal sector in both rounds and significant negative effects on taking a loan only from the informal sector. Similarly, social and religious groups play a significant role in the decision of the household to take a loan. Households with more educated adults are more likely to take a loan. Households involved in regular wage-earning occupations in urban areas are more likely to take a loan from formal sources. Thus, the importance of policy placing greater emphasis on demand-side barriers rather than on improving the physical availability of formal financial services to promote financial inclusion in India.     

A survey of adolescents’ perception of parents with a son preference

Preference for sons derives from the agricultural economy of the past. It is surprising, however, that this preference still exists in countries which have progressed from an agricultural to an industrial economy. The main aim of this study was therefore to explore the perception of adolescents to parents who did or did not have a preference for sons. Adolescents aged from thirteen to fifteen (n = 1,982) from six Chinese independent schools were invited to fill in a questionnaire in a cluster sampling study. Factor analyses were used to examine the reliability of measurements. Chi-square and independent t tests were run to analyze the data. The results showed significant differences between respondents’ perception of their parents in terms of whether their parents had a preference for sons or not, and that respondents whose parents who had this preference were more likely to have a poor perception of their parents than those whose parents who did not have this preference. Also, both males and females had a poorer perception of parents who had a preference for sons, even though males had received better treatment from parents who had such a preference. In the light of the continued prevalence of preference for sons in some Asian countries, it is suggested that more studies should explore the attitudes and behaviors of those children whose parents have a preference for sons, so that the government and the public are aware of the potentially negative impacts of the preference culture and effective action can be taken to tackle the problem.     

Workers’ relationships to their union: The effects of transfer status and race at a U.S. automobile plant

This study addresses the impact that transferring from one plant to another has on workers in terms of their levels of commitment, involvement and satisfaction with their union. Findings indicate that race is a determinate factor. Minorities that did transfer report being less committed workers and less involved with their union than minorities already working at the plant. Also, in terms of union commitment, involvement, and satisfaction although the age of the worker is not a significant factor, females are significantly more involved with their union than males. Accordingly, rank and file workers whom are elected or appointed union officials are more satisfied and involved with their union then those workers not in official union positions. In June of 2007, the survey was developed by the authors, and endorsed and administered by a major industrial union. The total population of the plant under review is 1640 workers.     

专业选择与初职获得的性别差异:基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”的发现

高等教育的扩张大大缩小了两性受教育程度的差距,年轻一代的女性接受大学教育的比例甚至超过了男性。研究高等教育横向分层维度对理解劳动力市场的性别不平等尤为必要。基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”数据,本研究从大学专业隔离的角度入手,分析大学毕业生初职获得的性别差异。分析发现,首都高校存在明显的专业性别隔离：女生更多地集中在文学、历史、艺术等专业,而男生更多地集中在理工科类专业。大学专业对毕业后个体能否进入男性主导职业具有显著影响。相较于男性,女性进入男性主导职业的概率更低,在控制了专业后,这一差异显著降低。非线性Blinder-Oaxaca分解结果进一步显示,若男女在专业分布上没有差异,不同性别群体进入男性主导职业的概率差异会减少40%～50%。该发现对理解城市高等教育水平劳动力市场中职业性别隔离现象的形成机制具有重要意义。     

Prisoners of Love? Job Satisfaction in Care Work

Previous research has established that paid care work is typically undertaken by women and that this work is often poorly rewarded in terms of pay and promotion opportunities. Much less is known about the reasons why women enter these jobs or their experiences of this work. This paper examines the motivations and experiences of two groups of care workers: childcare workers and dental assistants in Queensland in 2009 (N=1,767). We examine intrinsic, extrinsic and overall job satisfaction and the effects of job characteristics, work experience and demographic characteristics on job satisfaction. We find that childcare workers are less satisfied with their jobs than dental assistants on all three measures, despite a greater proportion nominating intrinsic reasons for entering the occupation. The most important factors predicting job satisfaction for both groups are day‐to‐day work experiences such as control over weekly rosters and entitlements that enable work‐family balance. We conclude that although love of the job may be a strong drawcard into care occupations for some women, experiences may not live up to expectations. Moreover, there is considerable diversity across these groups in motivations and outcomes indicating that it is impossible to view all care occupations as similar in terms rewards, outcomes and experiences.     

Phenotypic Bias and Ethnic Identity in Filipino Americans*

Objective. Links between phenotypes (skin tone, physical features) and a range of outcomes (income, physical health, psychological distress) were examined. Ethnic identity was examined as a protective moderator of phenotypic bias. Method. Data were from a community sample of 2,092 Filipino adults in San Francisco and Honolulu. Results. After controlling for age, nativity, marital status, and education, darker skin was associated with lower income and lower physical health for females and males. For females, more ethnic features were associated with lower income. For males, darker skin was related to lower psychological distress. One interaction was found such that females with more ethnic features exhibited lower distress; however, ethnic identity moderated distress levels of those with less ethnic features. Conclusions. Phenotypic bias appears prevalent in Filipino Americans though specific effects vary by gender and skin color versus physical features. Discussion centers on the social importance of appearance and potential strengths gained from ethnic identification.     

职业特征对中国城镇就业人员收入差别的影响(英文)

职业是决定就业人员劳动收入,继而影响居民收入差距程度的重要变量。本文利用国家统计局2005年全国1％人口抽样调查数据中的子样本,对职业与收入差别之间的关系做了经验分析,结果发现职业间收入差距可以解释城镇就业人员收入总体差距的12-17％。造成这种差别的主要原因有二：一是由于各职业对就业人员人力资本上的要求有差异,从而导致了职业间劳动要素报酬上的差异;二是劳动力市场、地区分割所带来的不同职业问人员自由流动的障碍,造成了这种收入差别。前一种原因强调了人力资本的作用,这应当是市场化改革的积极成效;而后一种原因反映的却是现阶段的市场化改革还不彻底。因此,为了缩小职业间不合理的收入差距,我们还应进一步深化改革,尽可能地排除由于市场、地区分割造成的不同职业间人员自由流动的障碍。     

Gender Differences in Criminal Sentencing: Do Effects Vary Across Violent,Property, and Drug Offenses?*

Objective. Many studies find that females benefit from their gender in sentencing decisions. Few researchers, however, address whether the gender‐sentencing association might be stronger for some crimes, such as minor nonviolent offending, and weaker for other offenses, such as serious violent crime. Method. Using a large random sample of convicted offenders in Texas drawn from a statewide project on sentencing practices mandated by the 73rd Texas Legislature, logistic regression and OLS regression analyses of likelihood of imprisonment and prison length illustrate the importance of looking at sentencing outcomes not only in terms of gender but also in terms of crime type. Results. Specifically, we find that the effect of gender on sentencing does vary by crime type, but not in a consistent or predicted fashion. For both property and drug offending, females are less likely to be sentenced to prison and also receive shorter sentences if they are sentenced to prison. For violent offending, however, females are no less likely than males to receive prison time, but for those who do, females receive substantially shorter sentences than males. Conclusions. We conclude that such variation in the gender‐sentencing association across crime type is largely due to features of Texas' legal code that channel the level of discretion available to judges depending on crime type and whether incarceration likelihood or sentence length is examined.